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^ AJkt MIIKARY

Architectural Drawing
and Lettering

A Manual of

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE ART OF DRAFTING AND LETTERING FOR
ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES, INCLUDING THE PRINCIPLES
OF SHADING AND RENDERING, AND PRAC-
TICAL EXERCISES IN DESIGN

PART I— ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

By Frank A. Bourns, S.M., A.A.I.A.

Architect. Special Librarian, Department of Fine Arts.
Public Library. Boston, Mass.

and

H. V. VON HoLST, A.B., S.B.
Architect, Chicago, 111.

PART II— ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

By Frank Choutbau Brown
Architect, Boston, Mass. Author of " Letters and Lettering."

ILLUSTRATED

CHICAGO

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE

1910

I^ntered at Stationers* Hall, I^ondon
All Rig'hts Reserved

154248

JUN 7 1911

WFD

Forew^ord

N recent years, such marvelous advances have beeii
made in the engineering and scientific fields, and
so rapid has been the evolution of mechanical and
constructive processes and methods, that a distinct
need has been created for a series of practical
working guides^ of conveuient size and low cost, embodying the
accumulated results of experience and the most approved modern
practice along -a great variety of lines. To fill this acknowledired
need, is the special purpose of the series of handbooks to which
this volume belongs.

C In the preparation of this series, it has been the aim of the pub-
lishers to lay special stress on the practical side of each subject,
as distinguished from mere theoretical or academic discussion.
Each volume is written by a well-known expert of acknowledged
authority in his special line, and is based on a most careful study
of practical needs and up-to-date methods as developed under the
conditions of actual practice in the field, the shop, the mill, the
power house, the drafting room, the engine room, etc.

C These volumes are esjx^cially adapted for purposes of self-
inst ruction and home study. The utmost care has been used to
bring the treatment of each subject within the range of the com-

mon understanding, so that the work will appeal not only to the
technically trained expert, but also to the beginner and the self-
taught practical man who wishes to keep abreast of modern
progress. The language is simple and clear; heavy technical terms
and the formulse of the higher mathematics have been avoided,
yet without sacrificing any of the requirements of practical
instruction; the arrangement of matter is such as to carry the
reader along by easy steps to complete mastery of each subject ;
frequent examples for practice are given, to enable the reader to
test his knowledge and make it a permanent possession; and the
illustrations are selected with the greatest care to supplement and
make clear the references in the text.

C The method adopted in the preparation of these volumes is that
which the American School of Correspondence has developed and
employed so successfully for many years. It is not an experiment,
but has stood the severest of all tests — that of practical use — which
has demonstrated it to be the best method yet devised for the
education of the busy working man.

C y^r purposes of ready reference and timely information when
needed, it is believed that this series of handbooks will be found to
meet every requirement.

Table of Contents

PART I— ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING
Line Drawing Page 1

Instruments and Materials — ^Architect's Scale — Character of Line —
Shade Lining: — Plan, Sections, Elevations — Importance of Axes — Lim-
itingr Lines — Oblique Projections — Modelini^ an Architectural Draw-
ing: — Shadows at 45 Degrees — Values.

Rendering in Wash Page 23

Materials (Inks, Brushes, etc.) — Stretching Paper — Inking the Drawl-
ing — Preparing the Tint — Handling the Brush — Laying Washes —
Rendering Elevations — Rendering Sections and Plans — Graded Tints —
Distinction between Different Planes — Water-Color Hints — Tube and
Pan Colors — Manipulation — Combination of Colors — Primary. Sec-
ondary, and Complementary Colors — Water-Color Rendering — W^ater-
Color Sketching.

Theory and Practice of Design Page 37

Methods of Study — Putting Ideas on Paper — Use of Tracing Paper —
Method Followed at Ecole dea Beaux Arts, Paris — SKetch Flans and
Elevations — Perspective Drawings — Exhibition Drawings — Measured
Work — Hand-Level — Elevation Measurements — Arches — Projections —
Inaccessible Portions — Approximations — Rubbings — Composition in
Design — Scale — Ornament — Design of a Dwelling (No. of Rooms, Hall.
Stairs, etc.) — Various Stages in Building a House — Sketches — Work-
ing Drawings — FuU-Size Details — Representation of Materials — Trac-
ing and Blue-Printing — Letting the Contract — Buildings for Offices —
Detailed Design of a Colonial Residence (Basement, First-Floor, Sec-
ond-Floor, Attic, and Roof Plans; Front and Side Elevations; Framing
Plans of First and Second Floors, Attic, and Roof; Framing of Front
and Side Elevations; Main Cornice and Dormer; Ititchen, Pantry, and
China Closet; Plumbing; Detail of Window-Frames; Porch and Front
Entrance; Trim on First Floor; Staircase and Fireplace Details) —
Uniform Titles for Drawings.

PART II -ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING
Office Lettering Page 3

Letter Forms — Renaissance Letters — Diirer and Serlio — Skeleton Let-
ters — Italic Letters — Roman Letters — Gothic Letters — Single-Line
Letters — Composition — Spacing — Minuscule or Small Letters.

Architectural Inscription Lettering Page 27

Classic Roman Letters — Italian Renaissance Lettering — Uncial Gothic
Capitals — Inscription Letter Sections — Klnglish 17th Century Letters —
Raised Letters — German Black Letters — Italian l^lack Letters —
Gothic Lettering — English (lothic Text,

Index Page 49

FKACMEXTS TROM ROMAN TEMPLE AT CUKl, ITALY.

One of the most interesting ejiaraplea of architectural rend^jriiig- in existence

Oritfiual drawitiif by Eriiatiuel Briine.
Rfptodmtfd by p^fmijishm of Atasi^tkuMHU iasiiiuU 0/ Ttehn&iogy,

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.

PART r.

Instruments and Materials. The study of mechanical draw-
ing has acquainted the student with the use of the ordinaiy drawing
instruments and materials. Those required for architectural work
are substantially the same.

Pencils. Soft pencils are used; a draftsman cannot have ad-
vanced far in ability before becoming familiar with the B B pencil,
which will draw any line, from the finest to the coarsest, and give the
greatest freedom for all kinds of work, from sketching to full-size
details.

In architects' offices it is an almost invariable rule for the new-^
fledged student and young draftsman to use hard pencils — "nails,"
as they are called by more experienced men. A soft pencil gives a
much more agreeable expression of ideas on paper than a hard pen-
cil; the latter should be reserved for mechanical work. The drafts-
man must not allow himself to become less accurate as he gains greater
freedom, and the use of a soft pencil gives no excuse for a careless
or slovenly drawing. II H, F and B B will be found the most useful
grades. For laying out work, H H is often used.

Erasers. The noted architect, H. H. Richardson, said that
" an eraser is a draftsman's best friend. '^ For work on detail paper,
a firm rubber is best, but a soft rubber is most serviceable for remov-
ing ordinary pencil marks from all kinds of paper, including the thin
tracing papers, without injury to the surface. It will be found that
tlie eraser can be frequently used in studying outlines, and it is the
custom for rapid draftsmen to let the pencil lines run where they
v\all, trusting to the eraser to make the outline true. A large size
ink eraser will be found easier on the hands than a small one. Ir
making erasures a tyix^.writer's sliield of metal with different sizes

For some of the text and several of the illustrations in Abchitectuiial DRAWi.vfi
the French work, iflements et Th^kjrle de T Architecture, Vol. I., by Guadet, has b«M'n
drawn on freely. The four volumes of this work by Guade: cannot be too highly recom-
mended. Even those not familiar wi^h the French language will find it an excellent ref-
erence work on account of the numerous useful illustrations it contains.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

of openings, corresponding to the erasures to be made, called in
draftsman's parlance, the "office goat," is useful. Holes can be cut
in cardboard or detail paper for this purpose.

Set of Instruments. Good instruments are advisable, as it
is hard enough to make good drawings, even with the best. Com-
passes with pencil and pen points and extension legs; large and small
dividers, bow-pen and bow-pencil, and two ruling pens, form the
usual equipment of the architectural draftsman's instrument case.
Besides these a simple form of proportional dividers will be found
very useful, especially in changing drawings from one scale to another,
and also when it is desired to translate a rough sketch into a definite
scale, preserving the proportions of the sketch. A small protractor
will be sufficient for the rare occasions when an architect lays oflp
angles to a given number of degrees.

Beam compasses are useful, though many oflSces have only
long straight edges and carpenters' clamps for this purpose. Some-
times a taut string will serve the purpose where perfect accuracy is
not required, or two points on a straight edge may be taken, one
point being held with one hand, while a curve is struck from anotlier
point by a pencil held in the other hand.

Drawing: Boards. It is necessary to have two drawing boards,
one a "Double Elephant" size, 28 X 42 inches, to accommodate
paper of a size called "Double Elephant," which is 27 X 40 inches,
thus allowing J inch at the sides and an inch at the ends; the other
board 23 X 32 inches, to accommodate the size of paper called
" Imperial, " which is 22 X 30 inches. It will be found convenient
also to have a small " Half .Imperial " board 23 X 16 inches in size.
These boards should have a straight grained cleat at each end, or
should be entirely surrounded with a framework of hard wood, having
soft wood in the center. Cherry makes a good hard wood for the
frames or ends, and pine or white wood for center. In many offices
the boards are made entirely of pine or white wood, but it will be
found preferable to have better made boards, and to take good care
of them, keeping them square. If adjacent sides of the board make
a true riglit-angle, the T-square can be uspd on these two sides, which
is an advantuf];e in drawing long lines. When the boards have cleats
at the ends only, however, it is always necessary to use the T-s(juare
from the left-hand end only.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Triang^les and T-Squares. There are T-squares to cor-
respond to the size of the boards. They are usually made of straight,
fine grained hard wood. The simplest form of fixed T-square will
be found the most satisfactory for general office use. As even the
best are apt to vary, it is a good idea to number every T-square in the
office and note the number on commencing a drawing. If, however,
the T-square is changed, and the new square does not line up with
the old work, a thumb tack in the edge of the head next the drawing
board may be used to bring the blade into line, as shown in Fig. 1.
The drawing edge (upper edge) of a T-square should never be used
as a straight edge for paper cutting.

Two triangles are required, one 30 degrees to 60 degrees, and one
of 45 degrees. Triangles are made of wood, hard rubber or celluloid.

naterials lor Wash-Drawins:s. For tinting, a nest of tinting
saucers, brushes, a soft sponge, large blotters, a stick of India ink,
a slatd slab for grinding it, a
half cake of carmine and a
half tube of Prussian blue will
make a good beginning.

Paper. Paper comes in
certain conventional sizes.
" WTiatman's paper " is most

easily obtained in two sizes, i *... . rSquare with Thumb Tack.

the "Imperial," 22X30 inches,

and " Double Elephant," 27 X 40 inches, and is a useful pa|>er for
all-around architectural work, being good for pencilling, inking in,
and wash drawings; colors can be laid on it even after erasures
have been made. The Whatman " hot-pressed" paper has a smooth
surface and is generally used for fine pencil or ink drawings. The
AMiatman "cold-pressed " paper has a rough surface and good texture,
and is useful for all-around work.

Tinted Papers. Gray or other colored papers are frequently
employed, pencil or pen and ink being used for the lines and shadows,
and chalk or Chinese white for the high lights. Pastels and water
colors are used on special colered papers ;*' scratch papTs" are those
on which white is obtained l)y scratching through the color©! surface
of the paper. Some of these papers, including buff or inanila dctal
paper, have already been fully described under the subject of niechan-

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

ical drawing. The process of stretching paper is also there
described.

Tracing^ Paper. In architectural work a great deal of tracing
paper is used. A cheap manila tracing paper is convenient for rough
preliminary studies not intended to be preserved. "Alba," a white
tough tracing paper, and "Economy," a cheaper form, are very good
for pencil sketching and also for careful pencil drawings. Rowney's
English tracing paper is very transparent, is good for accurate pen-
cilling, and takes color, but becomes brittle with age; it is, however,
the best paper for careful studies of architectural work. Bond paper
which comes in sheets 20 X 28 inches, is very useful for working
drawings of small frame houses, as the drawing can be inked-in and
blue prints taken directly from this paper without the necessity of
tracing.

Some offices make many of their details in black pencil on this
paper and where work on different houses is similar, let blue prints
of these details serve for each new building.

Tracing Cloth. Tracing cloth is used for important work
where the tracing will be roughly used or where changes are likely
to be made in the drawing. In drawing on tracing cloth, there are
three ways of making the ink flow well: (1) The most conmion is
to rub powdered chalk over the surface, dusting off the superfluous
chalk; (2) Benzine applied with a towel will clean the cloth; (3)
Oxgall, a preparation obtainable at any artists' materials store, may
be mixed with the ink. Sometimes pencil drawings are made directly
on the cloth, and after inking-in benzine is used to remove all pencil
marks. As a rule, the rough side of the tracing cloth is used, but
some draftsmen prefer to ink-in on the smooth side, thinking they
can make a cleaner line, and then turn the cloth over to color the
drawing on the rough side with water colors or crayons.

Scales. Scales for architectural work are like those used for
mechanical drawing, one-quarter inch to the foot for working draw-
ings, and three-quarter inch to the foot for details, being the cus-
toinarj^ scales used in American offices, though some offices use one-
(M'trhtli incli to tlie foot, witli oni^-lialf inch to the foot for details — ^the
cnstoin usually followed in England. It is customary to make full-
size details of mouldings and of sp(»cial constnictive pai-ts. Three-
SJxtt»entlis inch to the foot is sometimes useful as a scale drawing:, or

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

in laying out stairs in sc^ction, as will I)c tU\scTil)e(I later. This scale
is also frtMjuently used for exhibition drawings. One and one-half
inch to the foot, one mcli to the foot, and three inches to the f(K)t, are
also used. For the scale of three inches to the foot, the ordinary
quarter-inch scale may be read as inches instead of feet, as one-
quarter inch is one-twelfth of three inches. The three-quarter inch
scale is the favorite among carpenters for the reason that the ordinary
two-foot rule can be used on the drawings; as there are twelve-six-
teenths of an inch in everj'^ three-quarters of an inch, each sixteenth
of an inch on the rule represents one inch actual measurement. The
inch scale is very popular for drawing mantels, interior finish, etc.,
where the total dimensions can be read directly from the two-foot
rule, each inch being equal to the foot full size.

The accompanying illustration of an architect's scale. Fig. 2,
shows the usual divisions on a scale for onlinary architectural work.

ii | i. i iji!-H i ra

'LJtI

,2 lr 9 01 71 t\ 91 Oi 02 Z2

1 07 1 1 9e I I zc*!' - 1 02 I I pe I I oz I I 91 1 Ui I I

up'ifTY^'\v''Sji.p'sp'T''SY-''TVY''in'''\

I I I I I I I I I

_1_L

« 81

I I I

02 22

I i I

VZ 92

I I I

lillhhl

Fig. 2. Architects' Scale.

A six-inch scale of this size is very convenient for ordinary measure-
ments and a similar one eighteen inches or two feet long is useful for
laying out larger work. This scale gives the full-size measurements
in inches divided into sixteenths with the scales of sixteenjths reading
in the reverse order from zero up, so that the number can be read
directly from a sixteenth scale or doubled for a thirty-second inch
scale. The common quarter-inch and eighth-inch scales are given, a,s
well as the half-inch and one-inch scales. The useful three-<^arter
inch scale is given with the three-sixteenths scale in reverse order.

The accompanying sketch. Fig. 3, shows how a scale may be
used in laying out staircases in nian and section much more rapidly

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

than is usual in architects' offices. The sketch shows the plan and
station of a staircase at a scale of one-<|uarter of an inch to the f(K)t,
tlie staircase to he thive feet six inches wide. The si^ction shows
that the floors arv nine feet six inches between finished surfaces.
As it is desirable to economize space, the stairs are to be laid out with
al)out seven and one-half inches rise and eleven Inches tread. Di\id-
ing nine feet six inches by seven and one-half, we find that fifteen

.7r-----^^-

k^eV-

I * -f

I I Lt

-- -Ji

Fig. 3. Use of Scales iu KuyinR out Stairs.

risers will give us slightly over seven and one-half inches. To lay
out fourteen treads — which locate the fifteen risers including the first
and last — insteatl of spacing over fourteen treads, start from the first
riser, lay oflF parallel to run of stairs in plan eleven feet on the quar-
ter-inch scale; then draw aline])erpendicular to the run of the stairs.
Tip the scale until the zero coincides with the first tread and twelve

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

coincides with the line just drawn. Each division of the quarter
scale marked ofT as a scale of pro|X)rtional parts will give us a series
of [K>ints through which we can draw parallel lines which will locate
the risers eleven inches apart. If it is found that the stairs do not
arrive at the point desired, the scale can be tipped more or less and
each tread decreased or increased. The same method can be fol-
lowed for laying out the stairs in elevation.

LINE DRAWING.

Character of Line. The thickness of the line in drawing
should be the same throughout its length, except occasionally in
perspective rendering. The line may vary in different parts of the
same drawing, and in different drawings, according to how much or
how little detail is to be show*n, but in every case the lines should be
firm and clear. Those parts of an elevation which are nearest to the
spectator should be drawn in heavier lines than the more distant parts.
Thick lines generally tend to simplify the design. The outline of
the cun^ed mouldings, excepting those circular in section, should be
draw^n freehand, as they can be given more character in that way
than if made with the compass.

The compass should be used in such a way that the point will
not make large holes in the paper. The arms of the compass should
he l)ent so that the pencil point and needle point will be perpendicular
to the paper. Pencil lines should be made without a heavy pressure
so as not to dent the paper. The niling pen should he held like the
pencil and used very lightly, for if too much weight is put upon the
])en, the paper will be cut, and if the pen is pressed too hard against
the T-square the blarles of the pen will he closed and the lines l>ecome
weaker. It Is also necessarj' that the Ink shoukl always flow^ freely
from the drawing pen. It should be renewed frecjuently and the pen
should t>e cleaned each time it is refilled. If the ink refuses to flow,
it frequently can be started by touching the end of the |>en to the
moistened finger, capillar}^ attraction immediately starting the ink
to flow.

Ordinary writing ink should not be used with the drawing pen.
After the drawing is inked in, the pencil lines can be erased. The
student will eventually become accustomed to making the important
lines with the pencil and putting in many of the lines of the drawing

ARCHITECTURAL DRAVVIXG

a hiiniMiis

immediately in ink, between limiting lines in peneil. But the drafts-
man should Ik* very sun* of himself and his drawing befoiv using
this method.

Shade lining, or indicating
shadows by making the lower
and right-hand edges of pro-
jecting planes in elevation
heavier, see Fig. 4, is used in
architectural drawing, espe-
cially in illustrations for publi-
cation. In office work, when
it is desired to show the shad-
ows, the latter are generally
laid in washes. The brilliancy
of the architectural drawing
shown in many I'ecent exam-
ples, especially from New York
()ffi(*es, is much incfeased by
strengthening the outline of
projecting members and orna-
mental parts, by accenting cer-
tain points, and by carrying through only certain important iines
of mouldings, and drawing other hues only a short distance. Fin-
ished lines coming down on to projecting surfaces may be stopped
short just before reaching the surface, giving effect of high light on
those surfaces, as shown in Fig. 4; and lines at outer angles may
be carried slightly across each other, giving a firm intersection, in-
stead of stopping just at
the junction. For plans C^^ (^^^eak.

tne same holds good, as is
shown in Fig. 5.

In an elevation, the
planes toward the front
may be drawn with dark
lines and those farther back with lighter lines. Joint lines in masonry
and the lighter lines of caning should be drawn in ink which has been
/Jiluted with w^ater. ''J'he design for the National Maine ^Monument,
page 9, show^s a good , method of lining an architectural drawing.

Fig:. 4. Shade Lines.

•B-

Fig. 5. Junction.s of Lines.

First Prize Design. National Maine Monument.

H. V»n Burcn Maftoniplc, Archit^rt.

10 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Soinetiines linos of diflFerent colors, as red to iii(li<'ate brick,
blue for stone, yellow for wood, etc., arc used on working drawings
to take the [)lace of tinting.

DEFINITIONS.

Architectural drawing is geometric. If the student is making
the drawing of a model, he should try to think how the author of the
model laid it out, and how he, the student, would proceed if he had
the opportunity to lay it out. He will find that the model is repre-
sented on paper by the different projections such as the plans, sections
and elevations. These are laid out to a certain scale; that is to say,
one-fourth inch to the foot, which means that one-fourth inch in the
drawing represents one foot in the model; or one-eighth inch to the
foot, etc.

Definition of Plan. A plan of a building is a section cut
by a horizontal plane through the walls, supports, etc., at such a
height so as to show the greatest number of peculiarities in construc-
tion, walls, doors, windows, supports, columns and pilasters, fire-
places, etc. It is. possible to consider a plan as a horizontal impres-
sion that could be taken of the building in course of construction
when it had arrived at a certain level in the height of a story. On
the plan the construction is shown invariably by horizontal sections,
but it is possible to project up all that is below and also to show what
is above. In the first case the plan will show the architectural porv
tions which project beyond the base of the walls or supports such as
the base, steps, approaches, etc. In the other case it will show
vaultings, ceilings, entablatures, cornices, etc. Sometimes it is desira-
ble to show both — half of each — provided the parts shown are suffi-
ciently interesting or necessary for explaining the entire scheme.

Definition of Section. The section is a plane cut through
a building vertically, that Is to say, it is the same thing perpendicularly
that the plan is horizontally. This plane should be taken along the
line of some main axis.

A single section rarely is sufficient to give all the interior of the
building. It is necessary to have, as a rule, at least two, one a longi-
tudinal section, perpendicular as a rule to the facade, and the other
a transverse section, usually parallel to the facade. Very often a

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 11

small section of the front alone is made. This should preferably be
called a profile of the front.

Definition of Elevations. The elevations of a building are
the projections of the building on vertical planes parallel to the side
of the building of which an elevation is desired. Except in the case
of complete uniformity, it is necessary to have several elevations in
order to show the complete exterior of a building, such as the principal
facade, side elevations, and rear elevation.

•THE IMPORTANCE OF AXES IN ARCHITECTURAL
DRAWING.

The axis is the key of a design or of any composition. An axis
in geometry is a line which separates into two equal parts any sym-
metrical plane figure, or the pole of a surface of revolution or of a
regular solid, such as a rectangular prism with a regular base. In
architecture the idea of the axis is greater than this. It is in reality
a vertical plane through the whole building separating the building
into two parts symmetrically, or in such a way that they balance one
another.

Although the graphical representation is confined to a straight
line, do not forget that it is not simply a line. Take for example a
church; in drawing the plan, the axis of this plan will be a straight
line separating it into two parts, but this line itself will he only the
projection of the central vertical plane which is the axis of the whole
building; and the keystones of the vault, the lights which drop from
them, the center of the rose window, etc., are In the axis of the church.
Notice besides this that the straight line which is the axis of the
plan, and the line which is the axis of the front and rear facade,
the line which is the axis of the transverse section — ^these lines are
only the traces, all l^elonging to some axis plane, as it may be called,
and this plane is the principal axis.

But there are other minor axes. Parallel to the main axis are
the axes of the side arms and between these are the axes of the columns.
Running transversely are the axes of the transept, those of each bay,
the radiating axes of the chapels, etc.

In laying out the drawings of a church, for example, first place
all of these diflPertMit axes with the utmost accuracy. This inetliod
of laying out the drawings of a buikling by starting with the axes may

12 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAWING

be best explained by examples. Let us commence by the study of
a plan, that of a vestibule, in a public building; e.g,, the Hotel des
Monnaies at Paris, Fig. 6.

After having drawn the axis 1, which is the principal axis of the
building, it will be noticed that there are five bays of the central
pavilion which are spaced equally. Of these draw first the extreme
axes, 2 2; by dividing the space lietween axes 1 and 2 into equal parts,
the intermediate axes 3 3, will be found. In this way the chances of
error would be decreased, for if the axes were placed in the order
1, 3, 2, the possible error would be doubled. Now taking the portion
to the right, draw first the extreme axis 4, then 5, and di\nde the space
4 5 into e(jual parts, which will give the axis G.

Z , .

"Ci

• 1

•

...>-{

-t^ i -

J-

-•4 \
-■-f-i- -••-•-■

• ..

...^..-i--

■-♦-;

-ti' \ '

-iJ

a»;

«»

i 3 ^ 3 2

Fig. 6. Plan of Vestibule of Hotel des Monnaies.

Now consider the axes of the rows of columns 7 7. These are
to l>e arranged in relation to the axes 3 3 ; finally the axes 8 8 are
located in relation to the extreme axes 7 7, being checked in relation
to the axes 2 2.

In the longitudinal direction the same process will be gone
through, placing tlie first axis 1, then the extremes 2 2; by division
3 3 will Ix^ obtained, and dividing the spaces between the axes 1, 2,
and 3, into half, the axes 5 and of the rolumns are obtained. The
secondary axes will Ix^ placed in the same way. Finally it will be
found advisable to check up the (lifferent steps by verifying the dis-
tances of the secondary synimetrical axes from the central main axis.

RENDERING OF ROMAN IONIC CAPITA!,.

Showing conventional shadows and reflected lig^hts and shadows,

Reprnductd by permission of Columbia UntViirsity.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

In carefully studying the plan, and the different methods of
drawing it, the student will become convinced that the methods of
spacing the axes are of great importance, and that in this way he will
arrive at exactness and will avoid many mistakes.

The student must understand that it is much more difficult to
draw a good plan than is popularly supposed; more difficult, perhaps,
than anything else, from the mere fact that everything builds up
from the plan. In the plan especially, extreme exactness is necessary

'^y^^/zfj',- 7^-^: ^■i^ry.^'J^- ■'■•■■■ '.y'y

Pig. 7. Hotel des Monnales, Transverse Section of Vestibule.
Section on YY.

■ uij (fci, h-« iM> ,-^ »-^ ,..-,>* 1- Ki M-i >] .j^ 1— ^ ta' jkj |^4 Ml *^' '
,L^ .1^ Slli£i(! U (Si Hktfi ii;;: J-^ --^ ^^ <^t^ ^^ \*^ '•^^ ^^ Hii lit- -■

-:.-» ■

^,.■^^ I -

Fig. 8. Hotel des Monnales, Longitudinal Section of Vestibule.
Section nn 7/L.

and the student will do wx*ll, in order to become familiar with archi-
tectural drawling, to practice the drawing of plans constantly.

Now let us consider the sections, taking the same example that
we have just considered. The student will easily see that the archi-
tect cannot study his composition thoroughly without the aid of
numerous sections. Two sections, however, are especially necessaiy,
those following the principal transverse and longitudinal axes of

11 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

symmetry. If the student wishes to draw both of them, he should
decide first which one of the two controls the other. See Figs. 7
and 8. He will see that in this case it is the transverse section, par-
allel to the front elevation. The other, the longitudinal section, is
chiefly the projection of elements of the other section. Therc^fore,
in this case the drawing should be commenced by laying out the
t ransverse section .

First, place the axes just as has been done in the plan, 1, 2 2, 3 3,
7 7, 8 8. In regard to the profiles or the parts in section, the first
thing nec^essary is to locate the heights of the essential parts, taking
for the first level the main floor A A, next drawing the upper line of
the capitals of the columns B B, then the centers of the vaults C D.

Starting with these principal lines, draw in the details, as for
example, the heights of the bases in relation to the floor A A. The
capitals and heights of the architraves will be located in relation to
the line B B. It is evident that if all the measurements were taken
from the level of the main floor A A, the least inexactness would affect
the capitals, while if the total height of the column A B is once deter-
mined, no mistake can l)e made in the height of the base and that of
the capital, and even admitting a slight inexactness, it will be inap-
prtHia])le on the total height of the shaft of the column.

In all which has preceded, the drawing has been laid out along
the lines of the axes. But besides these are some conventional metluxls
by which the drawing of profiles in section or in elevation can Ik*
facilitated. I^t us take for example a fragment of the Doric order —
one from the Parthenon, Fig. 9. To reproduce this drawing one should
measure the different projections by referring them to one single
vertical line. In this case the axis of the column would not furnish
a convenient axis for measurement, as with exception of the column,
it determines nothing. It is best to proceed just as in measuring an
(\\isting order, that is, by dropping a plumb line from the overhanging
cornice and measuring the distance from that plumlj line to the
various members. But this vertical line from the outer member of
the cornice will be only useful for laying out the profile and in locating
t!u' axis of tlie column; axes should ])e drawn in every other possible
( jis:\ For instance, place the coliunn on the axis A; the triglyphs,
on B; tlie metopes, on ('; the head of the lion, on I), etc. To obtain
tlie heights dj-aw the princij)al divisions in first; the total height of

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the capital, the total height of the architrave, the complete frieze,
the complete cornice; then draw in each detail in height within these
first divisions.

The channels of the triglyphs, the guttae, etc., are all drawn in
on their own axes. As for the channels of the column, these can only
\ye drawn by projecting them. Do not copy them from the drawing,
but draw out a plan, dividing the circumference into twenty parts
or whatever number the design calls for, and project these divisions
up to the elevation.

Study the model care-
fully before copying it; thus,
in this example a close ex-
amination will show that
the architrave is slightly
sloping while the frieze is
not. If the student hjis the
opportunity to see mould-
ings similar to those which
he is drawing, he should
study them carefully. It
cannot be too often re-
peated that architectural
drawing should not confine
itself to exercise for the
hand; there should lye the
opportunity for real study
of whatever is drawn.

Limiting: Lines. In
geometry, we have learned
what the abscissa and the ordinate are; i.e., the elements of reference by
which a point is referred to a system of fixed rectilinear co-ordinate
axes. For every part of a design of which the elements are not geomet-
rical lines, such as a right line or circle, the method of abscissa and
ordinate is used, as in laying out profiles of mouldings or curved orna-
ments such as eggs in the egg and dart motive. Take for (wampU* a
baluster, Fig. 10; it is evident that it should be drawn in relation to its
axis. The student will mark the general divisions, A 1> thr {\h\ B ( ' the
base, C D the shaft, D E the capital, after which the secondary lines

Fig. 9. Capital and Entablature from the
Parthenon.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

of the mouldings should be drawn in. Between C and D, however,
the profile of the shaft may varj' very much and the student will not
be able to copy it except by laying off horizontal divisions. For that
purpose, draw^ the limiting lines of its greatest width m m, mark its
point of appHcation ^I, and r(»[)eat this o|)eration on the drawing. In
the same manner lay off the Hne ?/ w, and the point N, which give?

the smallest diameter of the shaft, and dc
not mark these points by a single poinf
with the pencil, but be careful to draw the
limiting (in this case vertical) lines at every
point, and do not erase them until after you
have inked in the drawing. These lines will
l)e a safe guide and will enable one to make
an exact and clean drawing.

As another example take the fragment of
the cornice with different ornaments, taken
from the Temple of Concord, at Rome, Fig.
1 1. The construction lines marked on the
drawing, and which should be kept in
l^encil until the drawing is completed, show
esj^ecially well the method previously ex-
plained.

K ! i !^ ^ Filially, to produce an architectural

_^>tl7 .".'.tTIII]v ; drawing with piecision demands primarily

a rational method and methodical habits.
The design gains by its facility, but the
method can only Ix* a general one In its
application, an intelligent draftsman will
recognize each time what should l)e the
logical sefjuence in carrying out the drawing.
And still, all of this will l)e only the mechanism of the design; it is
necessary to put into it taste and sentiment. For all of this there is
only one precept — it is by practice that one beccmies a good workman.
Oblique Projections. It happens often that in an elevation
or seH'tion architectural motives are reprc\sented obliquely in relation
to the principal plane of projection. Thus in a circular building a
series of similar windows are in cU^vation at different angles, conse-
(juently the widths differ, but the heights do not.

- n.XI

Fij?. 10. Balust.T.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

It is necCvSsary to become familiar with these eoiulitions of draw-
ing which occur fretjuently. It is here above all that geometry will
be very useful, for that study includes the planes of })rojection and
planes of development.

^Miile there is some little difficulty, there is also much profit to
be gained in projecting an architectural motive at an angle. In order
to project a motive at an angle correctly, one must understand the
motive thoroughly. An architectural arrangement drawn out in
direct elevation only, will not tell the whole story, but if drawn in
oblique projection a thorough understanding of the arrangement
is gained.

jim^m^i^M^mp ^. ■\ \

Pig. 11. Kntablature from the Temple of Concord, Rome.

It is recommended, therefore, as a very useful exercise to draw
out in oblique projections, designs that are made in direct elevation;
it is a good exercise in design, but above all it is an excellent prepara-
tion for architecture, compelling the designer to analyze his model
and to see it as a whole; to understand its projections and to compre-
hend the position of the different details. The designer realizes that
he is working on the real building rather than in simple imagination,
and so will soon see of how much advantage these exercises will
be to him.

Consider, for example, two windows, one in direct elevation and
the other projected at an angle. It is evident that the direct eleva-

IS ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

tioii ponnits the study of protx)rtions and it is evident also that the
()hli(|ue projeetion shows more than the direct elevation of the
dillVrent parts of tlie window. In the same manner draw out the de-
velopment of such parts of buildings as vaultings, circular walls, etc.

All this can be summed up thus: Study architectural drawing
as an architect. Become accustomed to see in the drawing the
object represented. It is very necessarj' that the drawing should
be nothing more for the designer than a sort of language, and that
he should see in reality the thing itself, just as a composer of music,
as he puts down on paper the notes of his score, can hear them as
though they were being played; just as everyone in reading a book of
printed characters never notices the printed letters but feels the emo-
tions that are meant to be conveyed as though the words were spoken.

Modeling an Architectural Drawing. A design is only
complete when in addition to the outlines, it is modeled, that is to
say when the form is expressed. The most common process for
modeling an architectural design is by wash drawing, but the methods
of modeling are the same whether done by wash drawing or by render-
ing with the pen, the pencil, or other processes. It is not possible
to say that modeling has absolute rules, or that all methods are good
even if the desired effect is obtained; i.e., if the reliefs and the forms
are represented in their true relations to one another. There are,
however, certain general principles that can be used as a guide in
modeling a drawing.

Shadows at 45 Degrees. It is the custom to assume that
the light rays fall in a direction, the horizontal and vertical projec-
tions of which make an angle of 45 degrees with the line of the ground.
The luminous ray itself does not make, in reality, an angle of 45
degrees with the planes of projection. Its direcuon is that of the
diagonal of a cube whose faces are respectively parallel and perpen-
dicular to the planes of projection.

This method has two advantages; the laying out is easier, which
it is well to consider, for the drawing of shadows is often a long and
complicated process, and in this case the depth of the shadows is
e(iual to the projections. Consequently, the size of the shadows
permits anyone to understand, without further drawings, the projec-
tion of one architectural body in relation to another, and the relative
positions in space of the different surfaces in one body.

FORVM
XTAVO/SIE

ROME

.In 'L>.. I ^

DETAIL FROM TEMPLE OF MARS VENGEUk.
An example of classic lettering, conventional shadows d.nd rendering.

Reproduced by fermission of Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 19

The drawing of shadows is often difficult; it is one of the essential
parts of descriptive geometry that will also be found in s{>ecial trea-
tises. As for indicating shsulows which cannot Ik^ laid out accui^
ately, such as shadows of decorative parts, it is a matter of
judgment to determine the amount of projection — a knowledge
gained by experience.

Values. After having drawn the shadows, lay over the shadow
part a uniform tint. Now the drawing will be seen to be divided
into lights and shadows.

As a first principle, it is necessary always to make a distinction
between light and shade; shadows will always be modeled, lights will
also always be modeled; but it is necessary to be able to distinguish
clearly which is light and which is shade in the same drawing, at
least where there are large spaces between different planes. The
parts having the darkest tint in the light should remain lighter than
the lightest reflected lights of the parts in shadow. Besides this,
geometrical design, not being able to make use of the illusions of
perspective to show distances and projections, has to make use of
expressive modeling, since it is the values of the tints alone which will
indicate the relative distances and projections.

TTierefore, in order to bring forward or to set back one plane
with relation to another, the only resource will be to tint them diflFer-
ently. Notice what happens in this respect in nature; for instance,
an object placed near the eye is modeled very clearly and one at some
distance is modeled much less, and one at a great distance or on the
horizon, is only a mass without details. So, the i;earer the object is,
the more it is modeled and the greater are the differences between
the shadows and the lights; on the contrary, the further away it is
the more the lights and shadows tend to mingle. In the foreground
there will be strong shadows and high lights, in the distance dull
shadows and softened lights; between these an intermediate propor-
tion of shadows and' lights. Therefore, in facade, the planes far-
thest away from the eye will have the least modeling, while the
nearer the plane is to the eye, the more is the modeling accented.

As stated above, in nature every light and every shade is modeled
and graded; the shadows are more noticeably graded than the lights.
The reason for this gradation of shadows is the indirect lighting

20 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

thrown hack on the shaded ol)ject.s hy neighboring Hghted objects,
and this is called reflected light.

Take for example a cylindrical body like the shaft of a column.
It is easy to distinguish on this cyhnder cast .shadows and shades.
The cast shadows are those which result from the interception by
another solid, of luminous rays which without it would have lighted
the cylinder. Shades result from the absence of light on the part of
the cylinder which by its position cannot receive light rays. Naturally
shadows are less affected by reflected light than shades. The reflec-
tion of light or the throwing back of light which creates the reflected
light comes from lighted bodies, which in theory may be considered
as secondary sources of rays of light of which the resultant will be
in the direction opposite to the light. That is, since the lighting is in a
direction of 45 degrees from above down, and conventionally from
left to right, the direction of the reflected light is in the direction
of a diagonal from the lower right front corner to the upper rear
Lft corner.

This conventional theory is to be followed as the rule for model-
ing. Commence with the lights, or where the gradations are more
easily comprehended. Take a solid of w^hite stone, for example, a
sphere. It is easy to comprehend that the strongest lighting wnll be
at the point of intersection of the surfac»e of the sphere with the
luminous ray which prolonged will pass through the center. Then,
around this pole of light, the angle of the luminous ray w^ith the
surface will l>e diminishing constantly following parallel zones, having
t!ie luminous point for the pole, until it l)ecomes tangent to the sphere
following a great circle whose luminous point is also the pole and
which will be the line separating the shade from the light. In other
words, the light will diminish from the pole to this equator.

In the shadow it will l)e just the opposite; the greatest reflection
will l)e at the other extreme of the ray prolonged to pass through the
luminous point and the center of the sphere, the shadow will increase
in intensity from the pole of reflected light to the separating circle
of shade and light.

But if any body casts a shadow on the lighted part of the sphere,
its shadow will be much less affected by reflected light and conse-
cjuently will be more intense than the shade itself.

From this follow two rules for modeling: (1) A shadow cannot

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

he cast on a body unless this l)ocly is in the light and some other body
is easting the shadow; (2) The value of the intensity, i.c, the degree
of darkness, of the east shadow at any point is in direct ratio to the
strength of light on that point.

The application of these rules can be illustrated on a geometric
l)ody, for example, the capital of a Doric column and its architrave.

T-r^ ^—^ '— ^ "^ — i T tlf *Tr - K

'd^U^:^^'U^LU'^jrr^Z.^iJ^_ _ i 4.'d ■J'JlSil'Jl^iLm-'*"^ '

-wetto

ll^ajthttrnve

ca5t shad

-^•abacus

Of U<^t^ ■

ahcuU

7 A ci-^^^5;;^.,,

■4

T&lon

Fig. 12. Shadows on Capital of Doric Column.

Fig. 12. The shadows should l^e drawn out and a light shadow tint
laid over them. Now let us consider where the most intense shadows
will be. Evidently at A, where the shadow is determined by a ray
normal to the cylindrical surface of a column, and the parts A' A',
of the cast shadows which meet the surface of revolution followin;^
its meridian of light. The clearest reflected shadows cannot l)e
s?en in the drawing as they will be found at the back of the projection
on the meridian opposite the point A. But among the parts seen
on the drawing the most ripflected light will be at the point B B, doubly
lighted by its position on plan and by the fonn of the moulding.

22 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Between these extremes the parts C C will have intermediate values,
whether shades themselves or cjist shadows. Also, observe that the
values of the light at contour C' are symmetrieal with the values of
the light of contour C. There will be, theR»fore, a symmetry of
mcxleling, in relation to an axis of the most intense lighting on the
column of the luminous part and of the intensity of the shadows;
this axis will l)e on meridian A. As for the mouldings which are
straight in plan like D D, their general value will be analogous to
the intermediate value C C.

Passing to the lights, we see that the point most lighted will be
the point a, and finally the generatrix a' a! ; and the light will become
more and more gray up to the tangent M ^I. But along the astragal
the light will extend in almost uniform intensity, for it will strike
more normally than on the cylinder. As for the straight parts, the
abacus, llie arcliitrave and fillets, they will receive less light than the
cylinder at a! a! and approximately the same as at C C; the sloping
part of the abacus will naturally have a more intense light. Other-
wise each one of the plain surfaces, in shadow or light, will be graded
from the upper part dow^, because the nearer the surface is to the
ground, the more reflected light it receives. For each detail use the
same reasoning. Thus, for the cavetto, there is a cast shadow in
the lower part, but the portion above the tangent is in shade. The
shadow is modelled by continuous grading from darkest at the lower
part to the lightest in the upper part; the talon will have cast shadows
at O and P, the portions at X being in shade, hence O and P are the
darkest parts while N is the lightest.

Another element comes into the modeling; z*.^., the openings.
An opening is always darker than the simple shadows, for there is
almost no reflection that comes in the opening to lighten the shadow.
Such are the door and window openings of a facade. The parts in
shadow, which are less accessible to the reflections, will be darker
than the other parts. For instance, the openings between the dentils,
the spaces between the consoles, etc., will be darker than the face
of the dentils or consoles and may be as dark as the general shade
of the openings. The modeling should be such that the parts which
are by themselves in reality, will appear so on the drawing. It is
not necessary to exaggerate; the modeling shoidd remain simple.

Lacking good models, it is always esusy to get good photographs

CORINTHIAN CAPITAI, AND BASE.

Showing conventional shadows and rendering".

Original drawing by Emanuel Brune.

Reproduced by permission of Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

of good wash drawings; for example, a large number of "Envois de
Rome", or drawings made by students in Rome, have been photo-
graphed and published. These are models which cannot mislead one.

RENDERING IN WASH.

All studies and completed exhibition drawings in the archi-
tectural schools are tinted in India ink or water-color. This is
done to show the shadows, and to indicate the relative position of
the different planes, and is the method of representation in com-
mon use in architects' offices, especially in the presentation of com-
petition drawings.

MATERIALS.

Chinese, Japanese or India inks are used for rendering, on
account of their clear quality and rich neutral tone. The ink
comes in sticks. Fig. 13, and it is ground in a slate slab provided
with a piece of glass for a cover. See Fig. 14.

I^^^^^l

%<)

Fig. 13. India Ink.

There are various kinds of brushes. Camel's hair brushes are
the cheapest and are useful for rough work. Sable brushes. Fig.
15, are two to three times as expensive as the camel's hair ones on

Fig. 14. Ink Slab.

account of the material, but are also very much l)etter. The sal)le
brushes have a spring to them not to be found in the caiiiel's
hair brush, and they come to a finer, firmer point. Chinese and

ARCHTTEOTURAL DRAWING

Japanese brushes are used a good deal of late, as they are cheaper
tlian the sable brushes and have some spring to them. A stip-
pling brush is one with a square end, used mostly in china paint-
ing. A bristle brush is a stiff brush used in oil painting ; on
account of its stiffness it is used for taking out hard edges, as
described later on. Fig. 10 shows a nest of jK)rcelain cabinet
saucers.

Fig. 15. Sable Brush.

Besides these materials the student should provide himself
with a large and a small soft sponge, and large blotters, which will
sop up water readily. Whatman's ''cold pressed" paper is the
best paper to use for rendering in India ink.

ilETHOD OF PROCEDURE.
Stretching: Paper. All drawings on which washes are to \)e
laid should be stretched, as described in the Mechanical Drawing,
Part 1.

Fig. 16, Nest of Saucers.

Inking the Drawing. The lines should be drawn with
ground India ink, the ink being as black as possible without l)eing
too thick to ilow. Ornament should be inked in with lighter lines
than the vertical and horizontal lines. This accents the struc-
tural lines. Very often the outline of the ornament is drawn
in a heavier line than the remainder. The width of the line

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 25

should vary with the scale of the drawing, the larger and bolder
the drawing the wider the line.

India ink evaporates very rapidly. It should be kept covered
and changed several times a day, especially in summer. After
the drawing is inked it should be washed to remove the surplus
ink, otherwise when the tint is applied the ink will spread. Tliis
is l)est done by placing it under a faucet and rubbing it very
lightly with a soft sponge. If the inking has been properly done
the lines will now have the appearance of a firm pencil line of a
soft neutral color forming a harmonious background for the tint.
The shadows should then be cast and drawn in wnth a hard pencil
m faint lines.

Preparing the Tint. For large washes India ink should be
freshly ground in a clean saucer each time it is required. In no
case use the prepared India ink which comes in bottles, as this is
full of sediment which settles out in streaks on the drawing.
Always use the stick ink.

Rub the ink in the saucer until it is very black; then let it
stand, keeping the saucer covered. This allows the sediment,
which is so fatal to a clear wash, to settle. After it has set-
tled take the ink from the top with a brush without disturbing
the bottom. Put this ink into another saucer and dilute it
with the necessary amount of water. Never use the ink in the
saucer in which it was originally ground. In dipping the brush
into the second saucer it is well to take this ink also from the
surface and thus avoid stirring any sediment which may still
remain in the ink. In other words, the sediment which is found
in even the most carefully ground ink should never be used for
washes, otherwise streaks and spots may show in the washes.

Where only a small surface is to be rendered the tint can be
mixed on a piece of paper in the same manner in which it is mixed
in the saucer. Thus various shades can be obtained mure quickly
and experiments made more easily. Skill in laying washes is
only acijuired by practice. However, some instruction is neces-
sary. If, after all possible care has been taken during the draw-
ing, such as placing paper under the hand to keep the paper from
getting greasy and keeping the drawing covered to protect it from
Xhe dust, the paper hae uevertlieless become soiled, it should lu^

26 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

cleaned by giving it a light sponging with a very soft sponge and
perfectly clean water. Touch the surface lightly, sop on the water
liberally, and dry it off immediately with a sponge or blotter with'
out ruhhuuj. Before washing, the paper should be cleaned by
rubbing it very lightly with a soft rubber. Especial care must be
taken not to injure the surface of the paper by rubbing too hard.

It may seem that all this care is unnecessary, but it is only
by observing this extreme care that the skilled draftsman obtains
the transparent wash and the beautiful, even, clear tints free from
all streaks, which give so much charm to an India ink rendering.

Handling: the Brush. Skill in handling the brush is acquired
only by constant practice. The brush demands great lightness of
hand. The right arm should never support the body. The arm
should not rest on the drawing; only the little finger of the right
hand should come in contact with the paper. The brush should
be held somewhat like a pencil between the thumb and index
finger, and the little finger should be v^ry free in its movements.
Touch the paper only with the point of tlie brush.

The brush should be well filled with the tint and care should
be taken that there is practically the same amount of tint in the
brush at all times. If this is not done, for example, if the
brush is allowed to get too dry, one part of the wash will dry
faster than the other and streaks will result.

If the brush should be too wet, the surplus moisture can be
removed by touching it to blotting paper.

If the paper is too wet the surplus tint can be removed by
drying the brush on blotting paper and applying it to the surplus
tint which will then be rapidly absorbed by the brush. Great care
must be taken not to remove too much of the tint; otherwise it
will dry too fast and leave a streak.

Laying Washes. There are two kinds of washes; the clear
washes used in rendering shadows, window openings, etc., and the
washes in which the color is allowed to settle, the latter being used
to render the grounds surrounding a building. Wlien laying
clear washes it is better to tip the board slitrhtly so that the washes
may How slowly in the direction in which they are being carried.
If the board is placed flat there is danger of the wash running
back over the part that is already dry and thus forming a streak.

DORIC DOORWAY FROM ROMAN TEMPLE AT CORI, ITALY.
All example of classic lettering", conventional shadows and rendering-.

Reproduced by permission of Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 27

The edtre of the wasli should always be kept wet, for if it hej^ins lo
dry a streak will surely follow. The tint should he carried down
evenly across the board, moving the brush rapidly from side to
siile so that one side does not advance faster than the other. Carry
the tint down about an inch at a time, the amount depending upon
the size of the brush and of the surface rendered. Always go
over the previous half inch at every new advance, taking care not
to touch any part that has already dried. In this way the tint will
dry gradually, parallel to the work. Carry the sides of the tint
forward a little more slowly than the center. This will make the
tint run towards the center ahd help to avoid the lines or streaks
due to uneven drying.

The tint should be carried forward in such a way that the
j)ajx^r will be thoroughly and evenly wet. In fact, it is a very
good plan to damjHjn the entire drawing w^ith a soft sponge before
beginnmg to lay a wash. This dampening should be carried well
beyond the edges of the drawing so as to prevent the color from
spreading to the drier and more absorbent parts of the paper.
Always remove the pool of tint which remains at the bottom of a
wash in the manner described under '' Handling the Brush." If
allowed to remain it will dry more slowly than the rest of the
draw in 2 and a streak will show.

The drawing board should be left inclined until the wash is
dry. Never lay one wash over another before the previous one is
absolutely dry.

In laying washes which grade gradually, either from dark to
light or light to dark, grade the tint by the addition of water or
color each time that an advance is made, and be careful that these
additions are such that the change in color is made evenly.

It is very difficult to lay an evenly graded dark tint with one
wash only. It is usually better to lay a light fiat wash or a light
graded wash to serve for a background on which to lay the dark
graded wash. By a flat wash is meant a wash which is the same
tone or color throughout; that is, a wash that is not graded. See
opening in Doric Doorway, Roman Temple, Cori, opposite page.

Water has to be added constantly in grading. Where there
is a series of graded washes, as in successive WMndow openings, it
is better to have two or three saucers containing tints of different

28 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

streiifjtli and carry eaoh tint for the same distanco in each window so
that the gradation of coh>r may Ik^ the same. In grading in this way
it is necessary to carry each new wash well back over the old one so
the point where one tint ends and another begins may not show.

Sometimes gradations are obtained by laying successiv^e flat
washes, each wash beginning a little lower than the previous one.
Tn this way the rendered surface will' begin with one flat tint and
end with a number of tints, one on top of the other. This is called
the French method and is done by drawing very faint parallel
lines at close intervals to mark the limit of each wash. A very
light wash is then put over the whole surface, and this is followed
with successive washes, each starting from the next lower line.
This method is especially good for rendering narrow, long, hori-
zontal graded washes. See rendering of mouldings in classical cor-
nice opposite. Note particularly the application of this method on
the crown moulding, and practically all the curved mouldings.

Avoid laying too many washes in the same place, as the con-
tinuous wetting and rubbing which the paper gets from the brush
is liable to injure the surface.

If the tints are too dark, a soft sponge can be used to lighten
them or to take out hard or dark border lines ; but a large brush
about two inches wide is still better for this purpose. If it is
necessary to use a sponge, use it with a great deal of water, rub
Vin^y lightly and very patiently. The water should be kept very
clean, and the surrounding parts should be thoroughly wet before
wetting the tinted part, otherwise the tint may spread over the
other parts of the drawing. After using the sponge, dry the paper
carefully with a clean blotter. Another and better way is to place
the whole drawing under the faucet, turn on the water and use the
sponge or brush, as already described, on the parts to be lightened.

To make light places darker, use the point of a brush, apply-
ing the tint in small dots. Be careful not to begin with too dark
a tint. This process is called stippling, and it must be done very
gradually and very carefully.

Do not forget that the first quality of a wash is crispness. It
is necessary to draw with the same precision with a brush as with
a pencil. When the drawing is finished it should be allowed to
dry thoroughly before it is cut from the drawing board.

Showing Liffhts and Shadows on Classical Cornice,
and French Method of Rendering.

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ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Rendering Elevations. The object of rendering a drawing
is to explain the building. Those parts of the building nearest to
the spectator should show the greatest contrast in light and dark,
for in nature, as an object recedes from the eye, the contrast be-
comes feebler and feel)ler and finally vanislies in a monotone.
Every elevation shows the horizontal and vertical dimensions of a
building, or details of a building, but in a line drawing the pro-
jections of the different parts when in direct front elevation are not
shown ; and it is to indicate these projections that the shadows are
cast and the drawing is rendered. The appearance of a building
or any details of a building will be clearly shown by the shadows
in their different values of light and dark. (See plates, pages 18
and 23.) The windows and other openings of a building should
be colored dark, but not black — although this is sometimes re-
quired in competition drawings — and varying lighter tints should
])e used to indicate the color of the material in the roof and walls,
the difference in the color intensity indicating the varying dis-
tances from the spectator. Note in plate on page 5, the com-
parative values of rendering in roof and shadows on roof ; also
portions of order in light, portions in shadow, and background of
column. This method of drawing is frequently carried to an elab-
orate extent by showing high lights, reflected shadows, etc., and an
elevation can thus be made to show almost as much of the character
of the proposed building as would be shown by a perspective view
or by a photograph of the completed structure. See frontispiece,
*' Fragments from Eoman Temple at Cori." Study the different
tone values of the various objects in the foreground and in the
background, and note the perspective effect of the background.

It is a good plan, before starting to render a drawing, to make^
a small pencil sketch to determine the tone values w-hich the vari-
ous surfaces should have, so that they will assume their proper
relative positions in the picture.

Drawings of this kind are much superior to any others as a
means of studying the probable effect of the building to be con-
structed, as they show the character of the building and, at the
same time, dimensions can be figured directly on the drawing. It
is difficult and unusual to give measurements on a perspective
drawing.

30 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Rendering Sections and Plans. Sections are frequently ren-
dered in the same manner as elevations to show the interior of
buildings. The shadows are cast in such a way that they show the
dimensions and 8ha])e8 of the rooms. The parts actually in section
are outlined with a somewhat heavier line and tinted with a light
tint. The surfaces are modeled just as they are in the elevations.
See opposite page.

Plans are rendered to show the character of the different
rooms by tinting the mosaic, furniture, surrounding grounds, trees,
walks, etc. The shadows of walls, statuary, columns and furniture
are often cast, so that the completed rendered plan is an architec-
tural composition which tells more than any other drawing the
character of the finished building.

The interior of the building and all covered porticoes are left
much lighter than the surrounding grounds because the building
is the most important portion of a drawing and should, therefore,
receive the first attention of the spectator. The sharp contrast of
the black and white of the plan to the surroundings brings about
the desired eflfect. Tlie mosaic, furniture, etc., should l>e put in in
very light tints in order to avoid giving the plan a spotty look.
The walls in the plan should be tinted dark or blacked in so that
they will stand out clearly. See Fig. 17.

Graded Tints. One rule in laying all tints should be strictly
followed : Grade every inash. A careful study of the actual
shadows on buildings will show that each shadow varies slightly in
degree of darkness ; that is, shows a gradation. The lower parts
of window openings are, as a rule, lighter than the upper parts.
Therefore, the washes or tints should grade from dark at the top
of the door or window openings to light at the bottom. Further-
more, it will be found that the reflection from the ground lights up
shadows cast on the building, so that shadows which are dark at the
top become almost as light as the rest of the building at its base.

Windows and doors are voids in the facade of a building, and
they have a greater value in the composition of a design than
shadows or ornaments in general. This character should be care-
fully shown in the rendering ; and to that end the grading should
never show such violent contrasts as to distract the eye from the
design as a w^hole, and thus destroy the unity of the design and

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ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the true mass of the openings. Many good designs are greatly
injured in the rendering by the violent contrast in the grading of
the o{)ening8 from dark to light.

In the shadow itself it will be found that detail is accented or

Fig. 17. Conventional Method of Kenderiug man.

32 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

brought out by reflected shadows. These shadows are in a direc-
tion opposite to the shadows cast by the sun. If the light is
assumed to come in the conventional way, namely at an angle of
forty -five degrees from the upper front left corner to the lower
back right corner, the reflected light may be assumed to be at an
angle of forty-five degrees from the lower right front corner to the
upper left rear corner, and the reflected shadows will accordingly be
cast in this direction. , See detail of Greek Doric Order, page 5.

If these are worked up in their correct relation to one another
the character of the details will be well expressed.

Distinction Between Different Planes. The different planes
of a building which project one in front of the other are distin-
guished from each other in the following manner:

The parts toward the front have a warm color, the portions
receiving direct light have a tone over them indicating the mate-
rial, the shadows are strong and bold, and the reflected shadows
are more or less pronounced. The parts toward the rear, on the
other hand, have no such strong contrasts of light and dark. The
light jyarts are often left very light and the shadows put in even
tones. The further the object is from the spectator the less pro-
nounced will be the reflected lights and shadows. ' Note the grad-
ing on the steps in plate, page 18, and study the frontispiece as
an illustration of this point.

In rendering, a difference should be made for different mate-
rials. Note the difference between the stone and the metal work
on opposite page.

A FEW WATER COLOR HINTS FOR DRAFTSMEN,

Many draftsmen who are strong in drawing, are very weak in
color work. The reason for this is, in most cases, that the colors
are not fresh, that the brush is too dry, and that the color values are
not correct. yrt't<h crisp color is most im])ortant. To get this
it is necessary to start with a clean color box, clean brushes, and
clean ])aints. The colors should be moist and not dry and hard.

Tul>e and Pan Colors. After having jic(|uired some facility
in the use of colors, tnl»e colors are the best to use, althoutjh
they are somewhat more wasteful than pan colors. They are less
likely to harden and dry up and are not more expensive. The

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ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

colors in the tubes can be squeezed out on the palette as needed,
and if this is done fresh bright effects are obtained. For the be-

Flg. 18. Box for Pan Colors. ,

ginner, however, pan colors are reeoinnieded, as they are more
easy to handle. Fig. 18 shows a japanned tin box for pan colors,
Fig. 19 shows a pan color, and Fig. 20 a tube color.

List of Colors: The following list of colors will make a
very good palette:

Cadmium Orange Vermiliuu Cobalt Blue Emerald Greeu

Indian Yellow Carmine New Blue Hooker's Green

Lemon yellow liight Red Prussian Blue

Gallstone Burnt 8ieuna Paine's Gray Chinese White

Yellow Ochre Warm Sejna

The colors printed in italics are clear colors which will give
clear even washes. The others will settle out, the color settling

WINSOR & KEWTON

T.ONP0N, ZN CLAN 11

MOIST COLOUR,
COBALT BLU¥.

Fig. 19. Pan Color.

KOBMO^ til:
Pig. 20. Tube C'olor,

into the ])ores of tlie paper producing many small spots,
effect is often desiral)le, giving a texture which cannot be ol
with the clear colors

This
tained

34 ABCHTrBCTTRAL DRAWING

For use \u the offices. India iok« Chinese white, gallstone,
canuiue and iudiuo will be foond very convenient. The latter
three are convenient forms of the three primary colors to use with
India ink in rendering. Mauv draftsmen use these alone.

rianipulatioa. The washed-out look of many of the color
sketches seen in architectural exhibitions is very noticeable. The
sketches lack strength and crispness.

Color properly applied should be put on boldly in broad
simple washes without fear of too much color. Keraeraber that
colors when dry are much lighter than when in a moist state. Use
plenty of clear water in the brush. Do not go over one wash with
another before the first is entirely dry. This is particularly true
where a dee[)er tone is to be put over a lighter one. In broad sky
washes where there is a great deal of paper to be covered, dampen
the surface well first with a small sponge, then with a large brush
and lK)ld yet light quick strokes put in the sky.

Brushes and Paper. A small brush with a good point is
necessary for '•drawing in " and for detail. A bristle brush is very
useful to remove color and to soften hard lines. Chinese brushes
are very good, as they hold a great deal of color and at the same
time have a gocnl jK)int.

If an edge shows a hard line, this can be softened by dipping
the bristle brush into clean water and rubbing the point lightly
over the edge that is too hard, sopping up the water at frequent
intervals with a clean blotter. It is im|)ortant that plenty of c/^cni
water should l)e used and that the water be taken up with a blotter
very often.

When a ** high light" is lost, and a bristle brush does not
take out enough color, the '*high light" may be put in with
Chinese white, mixing it with a little of the color of the material.
Look at your subject broadly and do not try to put in too
many details. AVhatnian's hot pressed 70- or 90-lb. paper is good
to use. The hot pressed paper, Mliich has a smooth surface, takei»
tlie color better than the rough surfaced or cold pressed paper, but
the cold pressed has more texture and gives better atmospheric
effects.

Combination of Color. For the inexperienced a few hints as
to what combinations of color to use may be helpful. It must

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A beautiful example of rendering in wash, showing conventional method of re pre se nting a

plan and surrounding grounds. This is usually done in strong contrasting colors.

The black rectangles indicate statuary; the crossed lines arbors. Note

how the shadows of the building, terraces, statuary, etc., help to

give interest to the drawing.

M : : :

A beautiful example of rendering in wash, showing conventional method of representing a

plan and surrounding grounds. This is usually done in strong contrasting colors.

The black rectangles indicate statuary; the crossed lines arbors. Note

how the shadows of the building, terraces, statuary, etc. , help to

give interest to the drawing.

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AKCHITBCTUBAL DRAWING 86

always be remembered that the colors must be clean to get fresh
bright effects.

A simple blue sky: Prussian Blue, Antwerp Blue or Cobalt Blue.
Clouds: Light Red. For the distance use lighter tones with the

addition of a little Emerald Green or Carmine.
Dark part of clouds: Light Red and New Blue,
lioads and pathways in sunlight: Yellow Ochre and Light Red with

a little New Blue to gray it.
Cast shadows: Cobalt and Light Red or Carmine with a little green

added.
Grass in sunlight: Lemon Yellow and Emerald or Hooker's Green;

or Indian Yellow and Emerald Green.
Grass in shadow: Prussian Blue and Indian Red; or Prussian
Blue and Burnt Sienna. Aurora Yellow and Prussian Blue
gives a green color similar to Emerald.
For gray roofs in sunlight: Light Red and New Blue.

Primary, Secondary and Complementary Colors. The com-
bination of colors may be learned by means of the diagram, Fig. 21,
which will assist the student greatly in his water color work. The
three primary colors are yellow, red and blue. The combination

of any two of these will give a sec-
ondary color — orange, purple or
green. Two colors are called com-
plementary colors if the one is com-
posed of two of the primary colors
and the other one is the third pri-
mary color. Thus, green, composed
of the primary colors blue and yel-
low, has as complementary color the
third primary color ; i,e.-^ red. Con -
suiting the diagram it will be found
„. „. ^, , ^ , that opposite colors are complemen-

Fig. 21. Diagram of Colors. x'l 1

tary colors; {,e.^ blue and orange,
red and green, yellow and purple. If two complementary colors are
put alongside of one another, each color will look brighter along-
side the other than if placed by itself; this is due to the law of
contrasts. Thus, the same green if placed alongside red, will look
greener than when by itself, and the same holds good for the

36 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

red. If complementary colors are mixed together you get a softer
color, a gray and sometimes muddj effect. If blue, red and yel-
low are mixed together in the right proportion a soft gray is
obtained

Water Color Rendering^. Where colors are used for architec-
tural drawings they should be mixed fresh, if clear tints are wanted,
but in places where it is desired to have certain effects obtained by
allowing color to settle, tints that have stood some time may be
used. Especfally is this true for plans, where the color is allowed
to settle in putting in grass, trees, statues, etc. Wlien it is desired
to let the color settle it is better to leave the board flat and carry
the color along with the brush, leaving it until it is dry. Some
draftsmen keep the board level for all their work.

Sketch elevations in pencil may be inked in or may be ren-
dered directly in water color, the shadows being cast and various
colored tints laid on to show the different materials, shadows, win-
dow openings, etc.

Sketches rendered in sepia only are very effective, putting in
the lines with the pen, and rendering with light sepia washes.
Elevations are usually most effective when the shadows are put in
by washes that grade quickly from dark to light, brilliancy is thus
obtained. It is astonishing what effects can be obtained with very
faint washes. This applies especially to small scale drawings.
The larger the scale of the building or detail, the stronger should
be the coloring and values of light and dark.

AVhen sections are colored the parts actually in section are
outlined with a strong red line and tinted a very light pink. The
colors on the wall are merely suggested.

On the plans the mosaic, furniture, etc., is often shown in a
light pink. Where a statue has a prominent place it is put in in
strong vermilion. Attention is called here to the fact that letter-
ing on a plan counts as mosaic, and should be done in such a way
that it will help the effect sought for, a very important point to
remember in competition drawings.

The important thing to remember in rendering is to get the
correct relative value of lights and darks. To do this it is neces-
sary to have clearly in mind what the important features to be
brought out are and what is the most direct way of accomplishing

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 37

this; in other worrls, the aim should be to make as harmonious a
composition as taste, talent and thought can produce.

Water Color Sketching:. Nothing is more useful to an archi-
tectural draftsman than out-of-door sketching in colors. A water
color block should be his constant companion on his Saturday half
holidays, and, if possible, he should join some sketching class.

The sketches in water color may be taken from natural scenery,
but the student should also make studies and color sketches from
color decorations of exterior and interior of buildings.

Do not indicate too much in water color sketching, search for
the big masses in shape and color values and put them in direct
and simple.

A draftsman who gives his leisure time to water color sketch-
ing in summer, and to evening classes in drawing from the anti(jue
and from life in winter, will have as good a training as could be
wished for in this part of his architectural career.

PRELIMINARY STUDIES IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.

Methods of Study. Different designers work up their draw-
ings in individual ways. Good results are, as a rule, accomplislicd
by getting ideas on paper, comparing and working up the best, aiul
combining different features from the different sketches. Some men
of the highest ability prefer to work in this way. Others work up
the ideas in. their minds before drawing them on paper, often not
changing a line once it is put on paper. The latter proceeding is
dangerous, as it tends to make the designer satisfied with the first
idea that comes to his mind, and makes him unwilling to search for
other ideas; he is liable to become narrow and careless.

Putting ideas on Paper. The problem whicli the architect
has to work out is to make the building of a form and of dimensions
best suited to the demands of the client, so that all the parts are in
goQcl proportion and In harmony with each other. ]Mucli (k^tail in
fonner times was studied on the building in course of construction,
but now ever}''thing has to be prepared beforehand, and tlie smallest
details foreseen before the building is commenced. The preliminaiy
sketches are generally made on a small scale, one-eighth inch, one-
sixteenth inch, or one-thirty-second inch to the foot, worked up from
rough thumb-nail sketches often not drawn to scale. Some design-

88 ARCHITECTUHAL DRAWING

ers will work up their schemes upon the back of an envelope, and
these can be brought into scale in the same proportion in which they
are sketche<l out by means of the proportional dividers.

Architectural work is half way between mechanical drawing
and so-called freehand drawing, permitting more freehand work
than an engineer would consider proper, and demanding more line
drawing than an artist would think of emplojing.

The most successful architectural design generally comes from
numerous freehand sketches, as well as accurate studies, frequent
erasing and changing on the original drawing, placing studies side
by side and comparing them, until a satisfactory solution is found.
It is only by a)ntinuc(l practice that freedom of expression is obtained,
and without this faculty, the best ideas are useless. The well-
equi])j)e<l architect carries a soft pencil, and sketches as rapidly as
possible every new impression on paper.

Use of Tracing Paper. When the plan has been well studied, a
sketch of the elevation and section should be made as a check on the
'* scale" of the plan. Tracing paper should be constantly used, both
in making rough studies over the drawing and in making accurate
line-drawings for comparison of the different schemes. These draw-
ings on tracing paper as studies in proportion, should be as accurate
as the finished drawing, though, of course, no care is necessary in giv-
ing them a finished appearance, and the straight lines may run across
intersections, and erasures and changes may be made freely.

METHOD OF STARTING A PROBLEM AT THE ^COLE DBS
BEAUX ARTS, PARIS.

At the School of Fine Arts, in Paris, when a problem is given
to tlie students, they are obliged to work one day by themselves
getting out the scheme of the building. Each student then takes
a tracing of his "sketch," leaving the original at the school. In his
own *' atelier" or drafting room, he works up the "sketch" with the
criticism of his own professor and fellow students. At the end of
four or six weeks the finished drawings are sent to the school to be
exhibit(Ml and prizes or mentions awarded by the jury selected by
tlic scliool. Tlie preliminary work of the "sketch" is very similar
to actual practice, iKHraiisc an architect is often obliged, in a very
short time, to get out preliminary sketclies for a client, and these

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 39

having been accepted, it is his duty to carry them out with as little
change as possible, excepting to perfect the proportions and details.

Sketch Plans. The plans, even in the studies, should have
the walls colored in with any appropriate color, such as dark gray,
as otherwise it is very difficult to see on paper the proportion of the
spaces, the ease of circulation, and the general character of the whole
in mass and in detail.

Sketch Elevations. After the plans have been thoroughly
studied the elevations may be worked up, studying the architectural
style and general character of the exterior in relation to the plan.
These drawings should be studied over and over again on tracing
paper, casting the shadows so that the projection of cornices and
sizes of window openings may 1^ seen; at this time also details of a
larger scale may be studied in sketch form.

On the elevations or in perspective, the jointing of the stone,
brick or terra cotta, may be drawn and this will give a surface texture
that may save further rendering.

Perspective Studies. For all smaller buildings, such as
cottages, farm buildings and small public buildings, requiring a
picturesque treatment, such as a broken roof line, it is better, instead
of spending much time on elevations with the shadows cast, to draw
almost at the start, a perspective from the most important point of
view, and make rapid sketch perspectives from several different
points of view.

Perspective Drawing. A perspective shouiu be made of
everj' building designed, primarily in order that the designer may see
how planes at right angles — for instance, the side and front eleva-
tions — come together, and also how roof lines will look from the
customarj' point of sight. This is especially necessary in buildings
of a picturesque character. A perspective is also generally demanded
for exhibition purposes, so that clients may gain a better idea of the
ap{x*arance of the proposed building.

Perspective sketches to explain certain points in the drawings
are of great value. Very difficult detail drawings may have sketched
on them the details in pt*rspective from different points of view.
These sketches will explain mort* clearly than many careful drawin^js
how certain parts come togetlier. Such drawings are very welcome
in the workshop and on the building iu course of construction.

40 ARCHITECTURAL DKAWmG

EXHIBITION DRAWINGS.

Exhibition or show drawings consist of plans, elevations, sec-
tions, and perspectives; the drawings are in line, pencil, pen and ink,
or color; and all are carefully drawn and mounted, to show the
scheme for the proposed building. These may he the preliminary
sketches of an architt^t regularly employed, or they may be com-
petition drawings.

The plan is blacked-in, the furniture delicately tinted, and the
surn)undings rendered in monotone or color. On the elevations
the windows are colored in with graded washes. Every shadow is
Ciist and tinted in; if in color, the different materials are indicated
by different colors. In the sections shadows are cast on the section
and the color schemes of the various apartments are suggCvSted.

The general idea of the proposed building is best presented to
the public by a perspective view, rendered in pencil, pen and ink or
color. The perspective is generally laid out in the architect's office
and then it is sent to a professional artist for completion.

SKETCHING.

We have considered drawings made on a drawing board with
T-square and triangles. There is another way of drawing, that is,
by sketcliing.

The sketch is the most rapid means of progressing in the art of
designing. In sketching an object one examines it more closely than
one othtTwise would. Not only is it necessary to understand a com-
position, to distinguish its separate parts, but it is necessary to fix
the relation of these parts and to study carefully the proportions.
The eye alone is the real instrument for measurement and guide for
proportion, and the sketch is the means for training the eye. Prac-
tice alone will give facility in sketching.

Do not make sketches primarily in order to collect material, but
make them in order to learn hoiv to sec. Sketch books may be kept
as souvenirs,^ but the profit from them will be more in the instruc-
tion gained while making the sketch than in the sketches themselves.
Through abundant sketching a freedom in the expression of ideas
is also gained.

The point to keep in view in sketching is to show the character
of the subject attempted. The exact dimensions one can get only with

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the tape-line, but the raost carefully measured drawings often fail to
show much character. A photograph is liable to represent a subject
other than as the eye and hand see it. But if the effect of the sub-
ject, the impression of the l^eholder, can be reproduced in the sketch.

Fig. 22. Cross-Seciion Paper.

something has been obtained which the tape and the camera camiot
hope to accomplish.

Materials for Sketching, At first it is a good idea to use cross-
section paper, paper ruled in squares of \ in. or less, wliicli niakt's
it easier to draw at right angles; but from the moment that the
draftsman is able to get along without these lines he sliould employ
only blank paper. A small sketch book should be carried in the
pocket. For small pencil sketches a smooth paper (metallic paper)

42 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

gives crisp effects, but much rubbing cannot be done. A gray paper
gives good effects with pencil or color used as a medium, chalk or
Chinese white giving the high lights.

The sketches can be made in pencil, charcoal, ink, crayon, or
in colors; the medium. of expression is of little importance, as,
aftf r having learned to see an object rightly, the drawing can be made,
as Ruskin says, " with a stick of wood charred at the end." A sketch
should be light and clear. Shadows may be cast, but merely to
express the projections, and should be only lightly shaded in.

Subjects to Sketch. In almost every city there are small
classes in freehand and charcoal drawing which the architectural
student should, if possible, attend; and in connection with every
art museum there a^e generally day and evening classes. But
great progress may be made by individual work in drawing interest-
ing objects. Do not commence with making a sketch of a whole
building. Sketch individual features, like a doorway, some orna-
ment, etc. Sketches of buildings or motives of buildings should be
made in direct projection as well as in perspective. The sketches
in j>erspective will help to explain the geometrical sketches and to
teach the student to think in three dimensions.

A great deal can be learned by copying photographs of good
work, but the greatest benefit is derived by drawing from nature.
By the latter the student learns almost unconsciously the laws of per-
sj)ective, form, and proportion, and above all learns to think "in the
solid." It leads to the appreciation of the fact that architectural
drawing is the expression of solids, and in order that these solids
shall be successfully shown, the one that draws them has to see them
in his mind's eye as they actually are going to appear when built.

He should be very careful in the selection of his models to draw
from, and choose only such that are beautiful. Too often the stu-
dent is told to draw no matter what, under the pretext that it is always
an rxercise. Without doubt it is difficult to draw any model at first
exactly, but what does it amount to if he occupies his time with copy-
ing those things which do not stimulate and develop his sense of
beauty. Thci-e is no better practice than to draw a flower, a leaf;
and if he has access to nuistumis, etc., he should draw from the
anticjue models, sculpture, and ornamental subjects. By drawing

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 43

the latter he can learn besides how in olden times natural objects
were conventionalized for use in decoration.

Memory sketches are excellent practice. Go to see a model,
study it as carefully as possible; then go home and make a sketch of
it. The student may be sure that his memory will betray him, and
he should go back to the subject and study it again and again — twice
or three times if necessarj' — after which he will finally arrive at a
reasonably accurate sketch.

MEASURED WORK.

There are two occasions for making measurements of old build-
ings; one, when it is proposed to make alterations; the other, for the
sake of study, making drawings of portions either for immediate
study or future reference.

Materials. It is a good plan if possible to take a small draw-
ing board, T-scjuare, and triangles to the building. Cross-section
paper ruled one-eighth inch between light lines and one inch between
heavy lines is very convenient. See illustration, Fig. 22, showing
use of cross-section paper. Drawings may be laid out directly to
scale on this paper, at one-eighth, one-quarter, or one-sixteenth inch
to the foot, or details drawn at three-<iuarters inch to the foot, or
full size.

Measuring: Tapes. The dimensions should be taken with a
tape, and for architectural work a ** metallic" tape or cloth reinforced
with fine wires and having clear figures, is verj^ satisfactory, though
it will be advisable to use a steel tape for very accurate work.

Datum Lines. As a general rule, it is best in frame buiklings
to take the horizontal measurements on the sill line, making a small
section to show the relation of the sill to the walls. In brick and
stone buildings they should l)e taken on the outside wall Uicv or ashlar
line. For heights, the finished floor levels shoukl be taken as starting
points, the main first floor of the building being the general datura.
If there are many projections in plan it will be well to draw a straight
base line and measure it from this line. If old buildings are out of
level it will be necessary to use a straight edge or draw a level line
on the wall and measure up and down from this level.

Hand Level. The hand level will be found very convenient
for obtaining approximately the grades about the building. Tlifs

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

is a small instrument used by railroad engineers in working out the
elevations on each side of the track. The level can be also obtained
by looking toward the horizon, pulling do^n the hat brim until the
point coincides with it, turning on the heel carry the horizon level
to the direction desired. This will give a point at the level with the
eye.

Elevation Measurements. Total distances should be taken,
and interior heights from floor to floor (with thickness of floors)
shouki be nm from basement floor to top of roof, and if possible a lin.*
should l)e dropped down the outside of the building to check this.
It is well to mark size of glass, and give outside dimensions of sashes,

d :

nil

fl-T-

i!'^

"^^^^^^^

•'I

'v^SiM

-^ ' fl i'^'

^-^Jff

^ii,'. 23. Twelve-inch Single Jointed Rule and Level.

taking dimensions to centers of windows or edges of stone or brick
openings. ^Measuivments are given by some architects from frame
to glass openings. Sketches or details should be made of typical
windows, and variations from the type. Roof pitches may be obtained
by a level and measuring the rise per foot, or outside dimensions and
total rise may he taken. A convenient instrument for doing this
work is a twelve-inch single-jointed rule and level, shown in Fig. 23.
Arches. In measuring arches, the height A, Fig. 24, from the
ground to tlie spring of the arch should be given, the total height B,
and the width C. The curve is obtained by giving the length of the
radii or by laying a straight edge, D F, against the curve and measur-

ARCHITEOrURAL DRAWING

y^ — >»^

I / \\

•i / M

■H— .-P-; -'

I I

i I

1 I

' I

B I

i ->
I ;

I I

I I
t I
.J *

Fig. W. Measurement
of Arches.

ing the distance 1) E, which wiU locate one point in the curve. Other
points may be taken by offsets from the straight edge.

Projections. Projections are obtained by measuring in from
a plumb line. The diameter of columns may be ascertained by means
of two parallel straight edges or by dividing the
circumference by 3.1416.

Inaccessible Portions. In places'where it
is impossible to reach the point it is desired to
measure there, are several ways of obtaining the
dimensions with considerable accuracy. A photo-
graph should always be taken of the building
measured, and a proportional scale can be made
from the known dimensions, which can be used
on the photograph for determining unknown
dimensions.

Approximations. In brick, stone, clapboarded or shingled
buildings the different courses may be counted and the totals figurt^d
from those that can be measured. Where rapid memorandum
sketches are made distances may be easily obtained by pacing, some
men taking nearly a three-foot pace, others walking easily five feet
in two steps. In this case every other step is counted as five feet.
The total heights may be obtained by measuring up as high as can
be reached, then standing at a distance, holding a pencil at this
known height, measuring the distance by the eye to the top of the
building. Or, a man's height can be taken to gauge the a{)proxi-
mate height. The foot rule may be held up at such a distance from
the eye that every quarter inch corresponds to a foot on the building,
and the dimensions can be read off in this way.

Rubbings. Rubbings may be taken of tablets, lettering and
flat ornaments by laying paper on the ornament and rubbing over it
with a shoemakers' heel ball. The pattern cut in will be left white
and the rest of the surface will be blackened by the heel ball.

EPIDAVRO^^

<SHCWING^GONXM<'
GREEK3DORIOAND'

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

PART II

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN DESIGN

NOTES ON THEORY OF DESIGN

Composition. It is impossible to formulate laws of composition
which, even if faithfully observed, will absolutely insure satisfactory
results. That is to say, any work of art — such as a picture, a statue,
or a building — ^may comply with all the general laws of composition
and still not be really artistic.

A great deal depends on the feeling of the designer. A carpenter
may make a cornice for the exterior of a house, or a mantel-piece for
the interior, without having been taught any of the formal laws of
composition; and nevertheless, by careful study and through the de-
sire to build something pleasing, may produce something much more
artistic than the most carefully wrought effort of a designer who knows
all these so-called laws but lacks all artistic feeling.

Workmen in the various trades can assist the architect materially
in producing an artistic result. One of the most desirable character-
istics in a workman is that he shall execute the wishes of the owner as
expressed in the architect's drawings, and carry them out as artistically
as possible in every detail. There is a certain character in every piece
of work which every workman should try to understand and carry out
in a simple, frank, decisive, and straightforward way. Every work-
man feels the value of truthfulness in work, and objects to sham in
doing good work.

Turner, the great English painter, was a man who did everything
that he had to do, no matter how trivial, well. John Ruskin says of
him, in his lectures on architecture and painting:

"He took a poor price that he might live; but he made noble drawings
that he might learn. He never let a drawing leave his hands without having
made a step in advance and having done better in it than he had ever done
before."

48 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Composition is the art of bringing together various interesting
details, so that the whole result will be harmonious and pleasing.

The important features should be on axes, or grouped symmetri-
cally on either side of an imaginary center line. For instance, in a
room, if tlie fire place is to be one of the features, it should be cen-
tered [on one of the axes of the room. The remaining features
should be arranged with relation to the axes or center lines of the
room so that as a mass they will balance each other.

In a good composition some single feature should dominate —
for example, in a building, the main gable, or a tower, or a long, simple
roof line; or in a room, the fireplace or a painting; etc. In decorating
a house, the general effect should be pleasing, and should not be too
much broken up by spotted details. There must not be too many
equally interesting points; otherwise the result is either monotony or
competition; one point must dominate. There must not, for example,
be other gables competing with the main gable by being too near the
size of the main gable. For the same reason it is better to group
windows and other features in odd numbers and accent the central one.

It is well to think of the location of the different interesting points.
In a cottage — to take an example — ^the gable that is seen from the best
point of view should be near tlie center of the perspective; or, again, a
tower should not be isolated or appear so much at one side from the
best point* of view that it will look as if disconnected from the house.

The smaller parts of the composition should have a proper relation
to tlie main motive. The dormers, for instance, in a cottage, should
be in the same style as the- main gable, or in harmony with the style.

Nevertheless, all these different parts must be used so that there
will be some contrast, in order to give life and interest to the compo-
sition. No detail from a different style, however, should be brought
in without the designer being sure that the harmony of the composition
is not thereby disturbed. To learn how to compose, it is not sufficient
to study books and receive instruction in the school or in the drafting
room; the student must supplement this with the study of nature and
of objects and buildings themselves.

Scale. Tlie word "scale'' has been used to designate a measure
of distance — for example, a scale of one-quarter of an inch to a foot.

''Scale" is used also in another sense — ^that is, to designate the
appearance of a building or any artistic composition, which, without

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

considering the actual dimensions, gives us an idea of the size. For
example, in the two sketches A and B (Fig. 25) the two vases have the
same proportion; but one is a huge decorative vase standing at the
side of a fireplace, while the other is a small vase standing on a table.

Fig. 25. '

It requires the books and other details of well known dimensions to
suggest the small scale of the one, and the mantel-piece to suggest the
scale of the other. The same principle is seen in doors and windows,
in the effect of steps in front of a building, in balustra4es, and in all
details with which we are familiar in our daily life.

A drawing is "large in scale" when it appears to be drawn at a
larger scale than has been really used; for example, a drawing of a
building might look as if it were laid out at quarter-inch scale when it
was really laid out at one-eighth-inch scai^. If such a building were
erected, it would be much larger than the drawing would indicate.
On the other hand, if it is "small in scale," the details are too small
and the building will appear as if it were built for dwarfs.

The materials used in construction affect the scale of a building —
such as sizes of brick, stone, clapboards, etc. ^Vrches span larger
spaces than lintels; iron construction needs fewer supports than stone
construction. The detail should be somewhat larger in scale in the
upper part of a building, where it is seen from the ground, from what
it is in the lower portion near the observer. Interior detail should be
finer and smaller than exterior detail.

Statuary, when called "life-size," is actually made about one-
quarter of the height larger than life size. The reason for tliis is that
objects in the open air, or in large spaces, look smaller than they

50 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

actuaDy are. The size also depends largely on the height from tlie
ground.

If a building does not appear to be in good scale — ^that is, if the
drawing does not suggest the actual size of the building (which may
be tested by sketching in a figure of a man, and measuring to see if the
house is in scale or not), the detail should be studied to see that it is
not too large ot too small; other details may be added, such as steps
or balustrades; or, if the design is an interior, the walls may be deco-
rated with .natural objects in the right scale. Anything that will
suggest the height of the human figure may be used, or stone joints
and other suggestions of material may be made more evident.

Ornament. Architectural ornament is the decorative treatment
of architectural motives on a building. The ornament should be
carefully studied on the small-^cale designs, and worked up from these
to the working cirawings.

All ornamentation or decoration should be drawn out on each
design, and particularly on the small-scale drawings, even if it is to be
carried out by other designers, modelers, or decorators; for it should be
remembered that the one man who is to bring together into a single
a)mposition all the elements of a design, is the Architect. The dec-
oration, whether sculptured or painted, is executed either from scale
details or full-size drawings, by the decorator or sculptor. If any
change is made from the main lines of the design, this change should
be studied on the small-scale drawings; otherwise it may be found
that the detail is entirely out of scale with the general architectural
lines.

It should be clearly understood that loading a building, a mantel,
a cornice, or anv motive with ornament does not make it a work of art.
Everything depends on where and how the ornament is applied.
Besides, generally, any motive is more artistic if it is perfectly simple.

Criticism. All through the work of design, it is of greatest ad-
vantage if criticism can be obtained from other architects and drafts-
men; and even the criticism of outsiders, conscientiously made, will
frequently suggest valuable improvements in design. 'WTienever an
intelligent criticism is received which suggests a change, it should be a
matter of principle with every designer to make a sketch embodying
this change, in order to see whether or not the criticism is good.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 51

DESIGN OF THE DWELLING

The plan of the modern residence began to be worked out in the
ISth century. There is a treatise on architecture published at that
time by BJondel, who says that a complete reformation had been made
in the architecture of large and small dwellings from the point of view
principally of the arrangement of rooms; great efforts had been made
to substitute for the long, rambling succession of* single rooms, an
arrangement of rooms double in depth, with separate communications
30 indispensable for conveniences in a building.

It became clear that in a dwelling the ease of circulation was very
important, and that the approaches to and exits from the various parts
had to be well worked out, for the living rooms as well as for the service
rooms. The aim of architects in the 18th century was for independ-
ence in the house, and it is to this that we owe their very remarkable
plans.

The treatise on architecture by Blondel contains many interesting

plans, well worthy of careful study. On the subject of Room, in

particular, Blondel gives some interesting data:

"It seems", he says, "that within about fifty years French architects
have, in this respect, invented a new art. Before this, our edifices in France,
in imitation ^ those of Italy, had an exterior decoration which made a very
beautiful architecture; but the interiors were hardly livable. The architects
seem to have tried to keep out the light ; one could hardly find a place for a
bed and for the principal articles of furniture. The fin»place occupit^d the
largest part ot the rooms, and the smallness of the doors giivc^ an inadequate
idea of the places to which th(»y gave entrance .... The arrangement should
be the first object of the architect; decoration depends absolute ly on a well-
studied plim. It is the arrang(^ment which establishes the length or width
and the height of a building."

Number of Rooms. The great objection to many small houses is
that the people want the same number of rooms for a small amount
of money that others have where more money has been spent. A de-
sire to have six rooms and a bath often results in making all the rooms
tiny and uncomfortable — more like boxes than living, habitable
spaces. These houses are not necessarily cozy just because they are
small; a cozy corner in a big room has much more of the cozy feeling
than is found in the small rooms of an apartment. There should be
one good-sized room in every house or apartment, even tliough one
room has to be sacrificed.

Hallway. The hallway should be neither a cramped, narrow

52 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

space, nor arranged in such a way that it will be a draughty part of the
house. It should be borne in mind that if open from first floor to roof,
the heat will pass up the hallway; for that reason it should be suflB-
ciently closed off from tlie other rooms. It may be arranged as a com-
fortable gathering place for the family. Indeed, with the staircase
kept properly to one side, and with a large fireplace the hallway may
form the central room of the whole house.

Stairways. Some men say that they build a house around a
bathroom, because they consider that the most important room in the
house. Next in importance is the staircase. The front staircase
should be easy and large. A 7 to 7J-ii^ch rise, with 10 to lOJ-inch
width of tread, is customary, though a 6J-inch rise with an 11-inch
tread is easier and looks much better. Staircases, in the better class
of house, maybe as eavsy as G-inch rise by 14-inch tread,or evenSJ-inch
rise with 15-inch tread. In back staircases a 7-inch rise with 9-inch
tread is not too steep; and they are frequently found as steep as 8-inch
tread. If space allows, tlie rear staircase should be sufficiently wide
to take up trunks and furniture — say 3 Mo 4 feet, with wide doors
(3 feet 3 inches) opening into it. In this case the stairs should be
strongly supported. Staircases may be made fire-resisting by stopping
the space between the stringers with brick and by covering the under-
side or soffit with metal lath.

Proportion of Stair Riser to Tread. A good formula to use in
laying out a stairway is as follows: Let R = the rise and T = the
tread, then .

2 R + T = 25.
i, e.y twice the height of the riser plus the width of the tread
should equal 25 inches.

Living Rooms. The living room^ library, parlor, reception room,
should all be "livable." The shut-up "best room" is a thing of the
past.

Sitting Room. This should have a southerly exposure, so that
it will be sunny and cheerful all the time.

The best arrangement for a sitting room is to have the fireplace
at one end, the windows at the side, and the entrance at the further
comer: The next best arrangement is to have the fireplace on the
same side of the room as the entrance, and both on the long side of
die room. Tlie most unsatisfactory arrangement is to have the door

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 53

on the wall opposite the fireplace or close by the fireplace, where there
is a constant draft.

The room should express comfort and restfulness. There should
be no feeling of over-decoration, and nothing in the room should be
so striking as to be the first and only thing to be seen. The great
objection to so-called '*dea)ration", is that each decorator or designer
thinks only of his own work, consequently making it prominent; and
it is extremely difficult to make the decorative elements harmonize.

Dining Room. The dining room should be, as a rule, on the
side, of the house toward the morning sun. It should be cool in sum-
mer and warm in winter, as it is the one room that is necessarily occu-
pied at least three times a day. A westerly outlook is generally dis-
agreeable on account of the low-lying sun for the evening meal.

Butler's Pantry. The butler's pantry should have an outside .
window, and doors leading into the dining room and kitchen. Some-
times a slide is put in, opening into a small china closet in the dining
room. The butler's pantry should be quite large. The story is told,
of an architect who dined with his client several times while he was
making the sketches; and each time, on his return to his office, he en-
larged the butler's pantry, and when tlie building was erected it was
still one of the cramped rooms in the house.

Kitchen. The kitchen should not be placed in too close proximity
to the living rooms, and should be on the northwest corner of the house.
As a rule, it should be separated from the living parts of the house by
at least two doors. This is done, partly on account of the odors from
the cooking, and also because of the heat. A basement kitchen is
objectionable on this account. The kitchen should be thoroughly
ventilated, the windows being set high — as near the ceiling as possible
— ^to let out the hot air, the sill being located alx)ve the backs of the
tables and sinks. A hood over the range connecting with a ventilating
flue, is very useful for ventilating. This ventilating flue will be either
a space around the flue from the kitchen range, which will be con-
stantly warm; or it may be a separate, square flue next the smoke flue
in the chimney. It is advisable sometimes to put deafening felt over
the kitchen, so as to prevent the passage of sound and heat if there are
sleeping rooms alx)ve.

Refrigerator. The refrigerator should be located so tliat it will
be easily accessible from the outside, for putting in ice; and it should

54 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

be near the kitchen without being too near the range. The refriger-.
ator drip should never connect directly with the sewer but should have
a separate pipe leading to a dry well outside the building. The sim-
plest and cleanest way to trap this is as follows: Build a galvanized-
iron pan large enough to rest on the floor under the drip-pipe of the
refrigerator; and carry lead pipe from this down into the cellar, ending
in an ordinary milk jar which stands in another galvanized-iron drip-
pan connecting with the dry well.

Storeroom. The storeroom may be made rat-proof by plastering
on metal instead of wooden lath, and by plastering the ceiling under-
neath with the same lathing, taking the precaution to cover all open-
ings.

Bathroom. Tlie bathroom may have tile floor and walls, or, for
ordinary work, a Georgia pine floor, with North Carolina pine sheath-
ing four feet above the floor. A sanitary base^-that is, one rounded to
avoid a corner between the wall and the floor, such as is used in hospi-
tals and in many schoolhouses, may be used. Waterproof paper
should be put in between the upper and tlie under floor in the bath-
room, being connected by lead flashing with the outside of the building.
This will prevent damage in the case of an unexpected overflow.

Lavatory. A lavatory on the first floor is very convenient. This
may open from the hall or be connected with a coat closet. It
should have a window.

Closets. ITie closet doors should open in such a way that the
light from the window shines into the closet.

On the sleeping-room floor, a housemaid's closet may be pro-
vided — if possible with an outside window. This closet should con-
tain a galvanized-iron or enameled-iron sink, provided with a flushing
tank as well as' with hot and cold water faucets.

The linen closet should preferably have no drawers, as they
furnish hiding places for mice. Shelves will answer every purpose.

Bicycle and dark rooms, play room, sewing room, billiard room,
music room, den, conservatory, etc., should also be considered.

Cellar. The cellar should be well drained, if possible, with a
drain-pipe separate from the soil-pipe. There should be a blind drain
under the wall, and the wall should be damp-proofed in damp locations,
by the use of layers of slate stone extending through the wall at the
surface of the ground, or layers of well-tarred paper at this point.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 55

Waterproof cellars are made by putting down several layers of tarred
paper well mopped with hot tar or asphalt, on which the concrete cel-
lar floor is laid. As a rule, however, it is best to have the cellar con-
nected either with the soil-pipe or with the blind drain, and to have all
the concreting put in so that it will slope to one point, where will be
placed a trap with grating.

VARIOUS STAGES IN BUILDING A HOUSE

The i)oint where the majority of people, who know nothing about
architecture, come in contact with the architect, is when they make up
their minds to build houses of their own.

To develop this point more clearly, let us consider the situation
that arises when a business man wishes to build.

The problem, as it comes to most men, is a question of number of
rooms needed, amount of money available, and proposed location of
house.

I^t us say that Mr. Smith, after lookng at various lots and mak-
ing as many inquiries as possible through friends and acquaintances,
and having also gone to some real estate agent who deals largely in
land in such locations as he considers desirable, has obtained an
option on, or possibly has purchased, a lot, the price being, say,
S800. He has available S2,000, besides the money he has set
aside for furnishing the house and paying the architect's fee.
He is willing to give a mortgage on the house for, say, $3,000.
Taking $4,600 as the value of his proposed house would leave him a
margin of $400. Accordingly, he goes to . an architect who, he
he thinks, will plan his house satisfactorily, and tells him the circum-
stances, the requirements, and the amount of money available. A
visit is made to the lot, to get the points of view, etc., and preliminary
sketches are made.

Sketches. From the architect's point of view, the sketch period
is vital in respect to the success or failure of the house. It is at this
time that he becomes acquainted with the owner's ideas and does his
best to interpret them properly so that there will be no criticism or
feeling of disappointment on the part of the owner — in other words,
so that the house will harmonize completely with its owner's habits
and tastes.

Every man has certain hobbies and indej^endent wishes in regard

56 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

to his house; these the architect should study and give the proper
expression.

In r^ard to the practical use of tlie house, every member of the
family, should be thought of and consulted. The architect should
obtain a careful outline of the requirements from tlie owner, going
over the number of rooms, size of rooms, comparing them with rooms
already known to the owner, heights of stories, location and ex-
posure of rooms, for the view, etc.

After sufficient data have been procured to make a complete
schedule, several different plans of the proposed house may be sketched
out at a small scale. Co-ordinate or section paper is very useful in
sketching out different schemes. As a general rule, it is better for
the architect to workout with great care some one plan which he
considers the most satisfactory. In dealing with some clients, it is
sometimes better to show this plan only; in the case of other clients,
"t is better to show them all the studies and consult with them about
details that would be merely wearisome to other men. The sketches
are generally laid out to the scale of one-eighth inch to the foot,
though small "thumb-nail" sketches are frequently made at no scale,
or sometimes several different schemes at a scale of one-sixteenth
inch to the foot. Memoranda should be kept of all conversations
with the client, for use in completing plans and in writing specifi-
cations.

Working Drawings. After the sketches are approved, the work-
ing drawings can be started. They are sometimes called "contract
drawings," meaning tlie scale drawings accompanying the specifi-
cations and contract, tliough contract drawings really include the de-
tails, which are not generally made at the time the contract is signed.
Tlie character of tliese drawings has changed very much, even in the
last few years, an astonishing amount of detail being put into the work-
ing drawings, while the architectural drawings of the English and
Italian Renaissance show that the old masters must have studied much
of their detail while the building was being erected. The main pur-
pose of the working drawings is to give complete information of the
building to be erected, as far as size and form can be expressed in pro-
jection, quality and general description being left to die specification.
It is of considerable importance to put on a single drawing as much as

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 57

can be clearly expressed, since workmen generally are not inclined or
able to gather information from several different drawings.

The working drawings are laid out at quarter-inch scale,* i.e.
one-quarter inch equals one foot, with details at a scale of three-
quarter inch to tlie foot, accompanied with full-size details. This
is the customarj' scale in America. In England and also in some
American offices, the rule is to make the working drawings at a scale
of one-eightli inch to the foot, with details at a scale of one-half inch to
the foot.

Plans of every floor, including basement and roof, all the ele-
vations, and such sections as may be necessary to explain the con-
struction, are required. In the sections, the vertical dimensions
should be figured from finished floors.

Besides these drawings, a block or ground plan is frequently
given, generally at -^V or gV inch to the foot, to show adjacent walls,
gardens, etc., and layout of grounds, location of drains, dry wells,
cesspool, and water supply.

Separate plans may be given in procuring estimates for heating,
ventilating, plumbing, and gas and electric lighting. These should
be made subject to changes that may be proposed by the successful
bidder, and, with these changes, should be presented by him to the
architect for approval before finally going ahead with the work. This
method is followed, because a guai'antee is expected from the contrac-
tor for the successful operation of his work; and each contractor in tlie
trades mentioned Ls likely to have good methods of his own, which he
should be allowed to use. Sometimes all of these drawings may be
incorporated in the general drawings.

Full-Size Details. Mouldings, and special parts of exterior and
interior fiinish, such as base-courses, water-table, belts, cornices, cap-
itals, special arrangement of brickwork, panels, carving, window-
casings, mantels, stair-newels, balusters, etc., are drawn fidl size;
carefully drawn sections are made full size. "Key drawings" at small
scale, isometrics, and freehand perspectives are invaluable aids if
drawn on the full size drawings. For cast iron and terra-cotta, allow-
ance is sometimes made for shrinkage. Tliis should preferably be
left to the pattern-maker.

•Note:— There is a great difference between "quarter-inch scale" u.^.. \i inch — 1
foot) and "quarter scale, " or oue-quarter of full size (t.^., 8 inches - 1 foot) .

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Besides the contract drawings and subsequent detail drawings,
other drawings are frequently called for, for which allowances have
been made in the contract, as for furniture, special finish^ etc.

• •.*.•

'. ON PLAHS • & :s£anon5 ry

BRKX-»JBWX-.SraMLVraDDrKE-PR. T C J«El?t OCNCR

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Fig. 26.

Representation of Materials. This may be either by blacking
in, hatching, etc., or by use of colors. The former method (Fig. 26)
is convenient for tracings to be blue-printed, as it saves coloring the
prints.

On elevations, materials are shown as follows:

Wood white.

Brick horizontal lines.

Stone dotted.

Metal vertical lines.

Shingles sketched to scale.

T(Tra-cotta, etc abbreviations marked "T.C.", etc.

On plans and sections:

Brick diagonal hatching, ruled lines.

Rubble diagonal hatching, wavy lines.

Stone dotted.

Wood grain indicated, or black if small-scale.

Fire proofing hatched margin, dottt^d surface.

Terra-cotta divisions to suggest material.

Metal steel sections suggested.

Concrete cross-hatched.

Old work white.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 59

If colors are preferred, the following may be used :

Brass and copper yellow.

Brick light red.

Concrete Payne's grey, mottled.

Glass new blue.

Glass in elevations a graded wash of India ink, indigo, new

blue with a little carmine.

Old work grey or black.

Plaster Payne's grey.

Sections construction not determined, pink with

red border line.

Shadow in elevation India ink with indigo or gallstone.

Slate indigo.

Steel and iron Prussian blue.

Stone raw umber or new blue, or Payne's grey.

Terra-cotta . . . , burnt umber.

Tiling light red with yc.low.

Wood yellow ochre.

Coloring may be carried further, following this scheme, always
placing guide-squares in one corner of the drawing with the names
of the materials represented.

Tracing and Blue-Printing. Drawings of which several copies
are needed, may be traced on transparent paper or linen, or laid out
directly on these materials. Thin bond paper is often used. Prints
may be taken from these, either blue or brown prints, giving white
lines on a blue or brown ground, or by first taking negatives, dark
lines on a white ground.

Notes should be kept for the specifications while drawings are
being made.

Letting the Contract. WTien the working drawings and specifica-
tions are finished, owner and architect decide on three or four builders,
any one of whom would be satisfactory, who are asked to submit es-
timates. The builders are allowed time enough to go over the plans
and specifications carefully so that they may know the actual value of
the work; and bids are sent in to the architect's office to be opened
on a certain day, when the owner meets the successful bidder and a
contract is signed for building the house.

In France there is generally a separate contractor for each kind
of work; in England a general contractor makes up his bid from quan-
tities given him by a quantity-surveyor; in America usually the sub-
bids are given to a general contractor who takes the responsibility for
the whole work.

GO ARCHITECTURAL DRAWLXG

The work generally starts immediately on the signing of the con-
tract, and is carried on continuously, with visits from the owner and
from the architect, payments being made at r^ular intervals or on
completion of certain parts of the work.

During the progress of building, the owner and architect select
fixtures, wall papers, etc.

BUILDINGS FOR OFFICES

The plan must be laid out so as to obtain the largest possible
amount of space available; it must be made with reference to the con-
structive requirements.

Arrange the oflSces so as to take advantage of surroundii^ and
light. A good outlook makes an oiOBce more desirable.

Staircases, elevators, piers, etc., should be arranged so that the
actual renting space will be an open loft, where oflSces and windows
can be divided up easily to suit different tenants, and can be easily
changed. *

Make the street entrance and corridors so that the offices can be
easily reached and doors and signs easily seen. The corridors should
not be less than 3 feet 8 inches wide; as a general rule, they should be
4 feet to 8 feet wide, depending upon the use, the niunber of offices
and the size of the building.

Arrange janitor's and superintendent's offices, telephone, tele-
graph, news booths, and elevators so that the tenants and public may
be quickly accommodated.

As a rule, unless there are two frequently used entrances, the
elevators should be placed so that they can all be seen by a person
entering the building.

A car 5 feet 3 inches by 6 feet, with a door on the long side and
the rest of the side removable, is convenient for handling ordinary
office furniture. One elevator in the building should' be as large as*
this. Other elevators may be smaller.

If a building is more than 6 stories high, it is advisable to have
one or more elevators express to the 6th storj% The doors at the
lowest floor, where the largest number of passengers pass in and out,
and where there is generally a '*starter" to see that the cars are not
overcrowded, may be arranged so that the whole side of the car wnll
open, allowing all the passengers in the elevator to pass out at once.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 61

Staircases are rarely used in an office building. A width of 3
feet 3 inches is generally sufficient; and sometimes staircases are as
small as 2 feet 9 inches.

If there is a light court, it should be of such shape and location
as to receive as much sun as possible.

There should be toilet rooms on every floor; generally lavatories
are placed in the separate offices. Radiators are put in front of each
window, transoms over every door; the lighting is done by electricity
with drop-lights and receptacles for desk-lights.

Write the specifications so that the building may be economically
constructed and will be a paying investment, and yet not so cheaply
built that it will be unattractive or constantly needing repairs.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLE : A COLONIAL HOUSE

Conditions. A business man, having purchased a lot sufficiently
large to give him space on all sides, wishes to build a colonial house
containing nine rooms.

On the first floor, a hall is to be in the center, with vestibule and
porch in front and doorway at the rear, so that the air may circulate
freely in the summer time. .The hall is to be about 15 feet wide. At
the front, on the left, opening off this hall, the owner wishes to have a
large room about 14 feet by 25 feet. The parlor and dining room are
to be about 14 feet by 12 feet each. Qn the right of the hall, next to
the dining room, is to be a china closet, with shelves and drawers,
connecting with the kitchen. Beyond the kitchen is to be a pantry,
with shelves, cupboards, and cases of drawers. The back entry is
to have a place for a refrigerator. The rear door of the front hall is
to open on an ample porch, where the family may sit.

The second floor is to have four bedrooms and an alcove in the
main part of the house, a convenient bathroom and bedroom in the
rear; and suitable linen closets. There are to be a front stairway and
a compact back stairway. ^ITie attic is to be arranged for sleeping
rooms.

Sketches. The drawings first to be made ai'e sketches at a scale
of one-eighth inch to the foot, drawn on ^Vhatman's paper, with tlie
plans inked in and the walls shown black. The elevations may be
sketched in pencil, merely the front and left-side elevations being
shown.

62 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Figs. 28 to 49 show complete working plans of a house fulfilling
these conditions — ^a three-storied frame residence, such as is frequently
constructed in our suburban country towns and smaller cities. The
drawings include tire basement, first floor, second floor, attic, and roof
plans, front elevation, and one side elevation, corresponding framing
plans, and details of different parts of the house. Details are not
always included in the contract drawings, but are made as the work
progresses. The rear elevation and one side elevation have been
omitted, as they are of the same character as those shown. These
plans are usually drawn at the scale of one-quarter inch to the foot;
in the illustrations, they are reduced.

Plans. On commencing the quarter-scale, the principal dimen-
sions should be given in feet and inches, not in fractions of an inch,
to the outside line of the sill. The main contour lines should be mark-
ed first, and then the wall should be shown on the first floor, six inches
thick. The sill line is shown on Fig. 29, one inch inside of the
outer wall Kne, and is merely drawn ;n a little way at the comer of
the building. In drawing out the plans in pencil, the lines may be run
stniight tlirough, taking no notice of openings. The lines that run
over can easily be erased later. In commencing to lay out the
plan, it is well to draw the center lines or axes first, as all the sym-
metrical points of the building will be laid out from these axes. Doors
and windows either center on an axis, or, as a rule, are ecjuidistant.
The bay windows and chinmeys are also located if jwssible on the
axis lines. The door and window openings in the exterior walls are
not located in plan until the elevations are laid out. When this
is done, the sizes of window designed on tlie elevation can be
transferred to the plan. As mentioned previously, in working over
the plans, notes should be made for the specifications and marked
on the plans; for example — jr. p. (glass panel); c.w. (casement win-
dow); /. Z. (top light or transom light).

Elevations. In laying out the front elevation, the center line
should be sketched in sharply, in pencil; and the location of the sill
line should be marked at the right and left of this center line. Then
tlie outside finished building line should be drawn one inch outside
the sill line, tliis being the outside of the boarding.

Useful Memoranda. In laying out plans at one-quarter of an
inch to the foot, the beginner is often puzzled to know the simplest way

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64 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

to show ordinary constructive forms; and in tracing plans, which a
banner is likely to be called upon to do, if the original is not very
distinct, he will find it useful to have some guide for convenient
reference^-as, for example, that shown in Fig. 27. The lines in the
drawing (a) of double-hung windows can all be laid to scale, though
very simply expressed. The sill is shown, both outside and inside;
and also the sash opening and glass opening. In a brick building,
the brickwork and wood furring are shown (b). The distinction
between single-sa^h (c) and double-hung windows (d) will be found
convenient. The distinction between a casement window (/) and a
French window (e) is not shown in plan, as the difference lies prin-
cipally in the fact that the French window is carried to the floor. The
casement window, on the other hand, is, in general, slightly different
in having a muUion in the center for each sash to strike on. Tlie
French window is shown opening out, and the casement window
opening in; but these could be made to open either way, and the
casement window could be built singly, or in pairs, or in series.

In placing a fireplace (g) on the outside wall, an air space
should always be left to prevent unnecessary cooling of the flues. The
finished brick fireplace should be distinguished from the rough
chimney; and, where necessary, flue linings should be shown. A
space should be showTi separating the furring from the brickwork at
least one inch, as prescribed in all good building laws. This applies
also to fireplaces on inside walls. The hearth is shown, either the
width of the finished fireplace, or sometimes the width of the chimney-
breast, and projecting 16, IS, 20 inches, or more into the room.

If the kitchen range is to be brick-set, a similar hearth and chim-
ney-breast must be built (i) ; and in all cases it is advisable to have
the kitchen duct circular (h), set in a rectangular flue whidi it keeps
warm and which is available for ventilating the kitchen through a
register set near the kitchen ceiling. The kitchen sink (j) should
always be shown with drip-board. A kitchen or pantry dresser (k)
should be shown with doors opening out — not sliding, unless the
space is very hmited. Laundry tubs (0 should be shown as indi-
cated in the drawing. A bath-tub is indicated as shown (m), and
other toilet fixtures are indicated similarly. Single (n) and double (o)
sliding doors (inside), single doors (p) and double swing doors (q)
are indicated as shown.

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66 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Basement Plan, Fig. 28 shows the. basement plan of the resi-
dence. Dimensions are all given to the oatside of the underpinning
rubble wall, which in this case is 2 inches outside the sill line, as shown
in the half-inch scale section. The footings of piazza piers at the
front of the house are shown dotted. On the left side of the piazza
is lattice-work covering the opening into the cold-air box for the fur-
nace. Tlie underpinning is of stone 20 inches thick; and the piazza
piers are 12 inches square, built of brcks. The posts holding the
girders are usually made of iron, three-quarter-inch metal, three and
one-half inches in diameter. Sometimes these posts are made of iron
about one-quarter inch thick, filled with concrete, the cost being about
the same as that of brick piers, with the advantage of taking up less
space tlian the latter in the cellar. The footings of the chimneys are
not shown ; the ash-pit under the chimney has an iron door for cleaning;
and the coal-bins are made with slides, and located conveniently near
the furnace and not too far from the kitchen stairs, with the partition
so placed tliat a)al can be thrown from the window into either bin.
A storeroom is built with shelves, convenient to the cellar stairs. A
laundry, with set tubs, is placed in the best lighterl part of the cellar.
A very desirable item frequently overlooked in planning, is to allow
a space at tlie right-hand end of the laundry tubs for the clothes-basket.
The laundry should also have a chimney near the laundry stove.
There are also a basement toilet-room and an outside hatchway or
roUway. Tlie windows, as a rule, should be located under the win-
dows in tlie upper story; and as the basement plan is frequently used
on tlie work separately from the other plans, all dimensions should be
r^iven, so that no reference to the other plans will be necessary. The
window oj)eniiigs may be figured to centers, but they are sometimes
figured to the brick oi stone opening. The heater, or hot-air furnace,
is placed near the center of the cellar. The cold-air box should be
arranged so as to take air from the side least affected by the changing
winds (south or enist). In the case here illustrated, it has been lo-
cated under the front jx)rch.

First-Floor Plan. This, the most important of all the working
drawings (Fig. 29), shows at a glance the main proportions and dimen-
sions of the whole building, besides being the plan of what, in our
American manner of living, is the principal story. of the house. *

This house would be located to the best advantage on a lot facing

I I 11

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-PLAN" or- riR/T- noon-

Tig. 29.

68 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the sou til or southeast. This would put the kitchen on the north,
the dining room on the east (which would give it the desirable momng
sun), and the parlor on the south and west.

The front porch sheltering the front doorway, and the vestibule
and second door, form a protection necessary in cold northern climates.
The hall and staircase in the center of the house open into the principal
rooms. The living room on the left, 14 by 25 feet, opens by Frendi
windows on the piazza. The parlor to the right connects by sliding
doors with the dining room. The living room and dining room both
have open fireplaces.

From tlie rear of the hall a door opens on the rear porch, and
another door leads to the passage connecting with the kitchen and tlie
back stairs. Between the dining room and the kitchen is a large china
closet, having glazed shelving and also a counter shelf on wliich is
dotted the location for a china-closet sink — ^which, shown in this way,
would not be a)nsidered a part of a contract, but could be put in later.
From the kitchen a staircase leads down to the basement. The
kitchen has windows on both sides, gi^^ng a cross-draft for ventilation,
which is very agreeable in summer.

In the rear of the kitchen is a pantry, with cupboards, drawers,
and shelving. The large back entry is planned for a refrigerator,
which has an ice door on the rear, to be put in according to the direc-
tions furnished by the refrigerator maker.

This plan shoukl be laid out like all the others, from a center axis,
the dimensions being figured to outside of studs for outside walls, and
to the center of partitions for inside walls, and to the centers of tlie
window openings.

The sill line is J inch inside the outside line of the walls shown,
while the inner line representing the plaster surface is 4 J or -i} inches
inside the sill line. The dimensions being given in this way, it is a
simple matter for the carpenter on the building to run his measuring
stick between the outside studding and against tlie outside boarding,
and to measure across, thus locating the center of an interior partition
or the center of one of the windows. The location of gas and electric
fixtures is shown by circles on the plans.

Second-Floor Plan. This is shown in Fig. 30. Only those
dimensions are given on these plans which are not indicated on the
first floor, as all second-floor partitions are supposed to rest on the

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ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 71

partitions below, if possible. The roofs of the porch and piazza are
shown. These may be covered with painted canvas or with tin, and,
if they are to be much used, should be provided also with a floor of
wood slats. The staircase and hall are shown with an alcove opening
toward the front, lighted from the window over the front porch. This
alcove is separated from the hall by an arch resting on small col-
umns, making an attractive sitting room. There are doors from it
into the adjacent bedrooms. Instead of the arched opening, a parti-
tion may be put in, making a convenient dressing room. The bed-
rooms are 11 by 14 feet, and are provided with closets.

One bedroom has a fireplace, and the two l^edrooms on the left of
the liouse have access to a chimney. There is a small linen closet,
provided with wide shelves, opening out of the hall. Sometimes the
lower part of this closet is provided with drawers, and the upper part
with wide lockers having drop fronts. The opening between the front
hall and the rear hall can be closed with a door, if desired; or the door
can be placed opposite the partition between the batliroom and the
rear bedroom. The bathroom comes directly over the butler's pantry,
so that the plumbing is all very compactly arranged. The staircase
to the attic goes up over the back stairs that lead down to the kitchen,
^rhe rear bedroom, which could be used as a servants' room, is pro-
vided with a large closet. A large linen closet, with shelves and
drawers, opens into the rear hall.

Attic and Roof Plan. The attic, as shown in Fig. 31, is left un-
finished, with the exception of the hall at the top of the back stairs.
The location of the tank is shown near a chimney, and a small closet
opens off the hall. The roof lines are shown by dot-and-dash lines,
which are frequently drawn in red on the working drawings. The
frame line {i. c, the line of the outside of the sill and the studding) —
which should appear on all the working drawings — is shown here in
full, with all dimensions noted thereon.

Front and Side Elevations. As shown in Figs. 32 and 33, the
character of the house is "Colonial/* of about the period of the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century. The treatment is very simple and
the details should 1^ worked out delicately to obtain the Colonial
character. The construction is comparatively simple, the base ])ein^'
of brick, sometimes with a granite course at grade, and sometimes the
whole underpinning being of split granite. The wall is covered with

a=3 d ,

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DETAIL- OF- FKQMT> LLLVATIQN-

Fig. 34.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 75

clapboards, with cypress or pine finish. The roof is covered with
shingles. The location of the floors is shown by a dot-and-dasli line,
which in working drawings is frequently put in in red ink. The
height of the floors is 9 feet for the first story, 8 feet 6 inches for the
second story, with an attic 8 feet in the clear. The cellar is to be 8
feet high in the clear.

Detail of Front Elevation. Fig. 34, showing detail of the front
elevation, is reduced from a drawing made at a scale of one-half inch
to the foot. This is sufficiently large to show very clearly to the work-
men the relation and character of the mouldings, which njust, of
course, be worked out at full size. The cornice and the front entrance
are here shown, the cornice consisting of the Roman Doric Order, as
treated in the Colonial period, the column having a modified Attic
base, and a shaft with the customary entasis. This entasis or swelling
of the column extends one-third of its height without diminution, and
tapers slightly until it comes to the necking. The cap is very simple,
consisting of astragal, necking, fillet, and echinus, all turned; a squart
abacus, consisting of a fascia, ogee, and fillet. The architrave con-
sists of a fascia, small bead, another fascia, ogee, and fillet. The
frieze in this type of building is usually plain; and the cornice, which
may be gieatly varied, consists, in this case, of a great quarter-hollow,
fillet, quarter-round, fascia with brackets, and a corona consisting of
fascia, fillet, and cyma. Between the columns is a balustrade witli
turned balusters. The cornice is surmounted by another balustrade
with posts, top and bottom rail, and turned balusters. The doorwav
is worked out in old Colonial style, with paneling peculiar to that pe-
riod. The sash may be made either according to the design shown,
in wood, or with wide leads, which may be painted white. Windows
are shown with outside casing and back band; and the center window
has a small cap to accent the central portion of the house. The water-
table is formed to take up the slight projections of the brick underpin-
ning beyond the outside boarding. It consists of a ^vide fascia, an
astragal, and a splayed member. The corner is paneled, as shown.
Sdmetinies a plain corner-board is employed, and at other times it is
made larger and finished with a Classic capital and base. The cornice
of the house is similar to the cornice of the porch, the frieze and archi-
trave being omitted, as is quite customary on Colonial houses, al-
though there are examples of Colonial houses where the complete en-

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ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 77

tablature is used. The dormer shows a peculiar Colonial treatment,
using a small Doric Order on each side of the arched window. The
muntins of the sash are generally worked out in wood. At the side of
the roof is shown a side elevation of the dormer.

First-Hoor Framing Plan. (Fig. 35.) The supports shown with
a dot-and-dash line would usually be shown in red ink in the working
drawings. The sill, 6 by 8 inches, laid flat, is shown with a full line
* running all around the building. The girders and the posts on which
they rest are shown in a full line, the girders being 8 inches by 10 inches,
and the posts not over 10 feet apart. The piazza girders are 4 by 6,
and the piazza sills are 4 by 6. The piazza floor joists are 2 by 8 inches,
20 inches on center. The dimensions are given to the outside of the
sill, and to the centers of the partitions. Where the partitions come
over each other and are parallel to the joists, a joist is set 1 indi each
side of the studs of the partition, so that the rough floor boards may
run directly through and leave room for nailing for the finished floor
each side of the partitions. Trimmers and headers are double the
size of their respective floor joists, being 4 by 10 inchas in this case.
All joists are set 2 inches clear of the fireplace openings. The dis-
tances are given to the centers of the trimmers, but sometimes dimen-
sions are given for the clear opening. All the first-floor joists are to be
2 by 10, placed 16 inches on centers. The bridging is shown dotted.
This is made of 1 by 2A-inch stock set diagonally between the joists.

It will be noticed that all the 2-inch joists except those in special
locations — ^for example, under a partition, as above mentioned — are
shown with only a single line, all other timbers being shown with a
double line.

Second-Floor Framing Plan. The second-floor framing plan
(Figi 36) is similar to the first-floor, the girts, 4 by 6 inches, being
shown instead of the sill. The framing of the roofs of the porches is
shown, and notes are made where the girts are flush or where they are
sunk. In certain cases it will be noticed that the joists are carried
through, continuous. It often happens that shorter stock might have
been used at no disadvantage to the building. The joists across tlie
building should be nailed together wherever possible, so as to make a
complete tie across the building.

Attic Framing Plan. On this drawing (Fig. 37), the roof plate
is shown, and also the location of tlie hard pine ledger-board. The

/JB Au Vouch VAnw

TO ir 1*4 2(7 OC

Girt- -

T* |iKi(>(.in4

- -i*

V-

-a:^^ *-i-

■3:tr-H-r-

.vv:.

.1 L

L r-A Ji=i

f\:

il'AG' ,2.c"0- -

a&r:^

SlUPilM

4-T

_iL.

fcti

Cv^

(4tS--

- <A6 rt^H (SiRt/

- 4Xc-

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'TRATM^G-PLAn- OF- dTDOMD-rLOOR,'

o X 2 9 4* A e
Fig. 35.

•fumvO ix^-

LtPtilK-

-^ST

■VOAKP--

^^.

JqL

-ii>-

_ra

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rir

taer

cvj

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In r-o4- ^■-*".

■XI

"''^ -PlATt TWO aW*^ '-''

H-?.

'FJiAniNG- PLAr\ - OF-THIRD- FLOOR. •

o 1 « S 4 S 6 7A

J'ca.le of '■' ' ' 1 /e«.t

Fig. 37.

rv:

AB ALL /^AIrt RATTERS
TO BE iXT'-aO'-O-C
PORrtf R RA/T£R3 lAi^l^OC \

- -t- — p -CfAlC-^t^-V T- -1 — '

^r,

IT-TT

.T^\.

!-i

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r ^j

//-'■

:7T

L— i-i; - T" ^7' ;i '//

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^ — 7/ ■ x:

10- 3

^ T- I V - r?

±iff

f- -^-^-l^

% r,^'*^'

-FRAJMMG-PLAN- OF-RCXr-

Fig. 38.

as i

»0-

^.[J^

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 83

partition caps of the story l)elow, on wliich tlie joists rest, are shown.
The joists in the attic floor are 2 by 8, placed 10 inches on centers.

Roof Framing Plan, The rafters and hips are shown (Fig. 3S)
2 by 10; the valley rafters, 3 by 9; the ridge, 2 by 8 inches. The rafters
either side of the dormer o{)enings are 4 by 7, and the headers for the
dormers are also 4 by 7 inches. All the other main rafters are 2 by 7
inches, placed 20 inches on centers; and the dormer rafters, 2 by 6,
placed 20 inches on centers. The plate line, which is the same as the
first-floor sill line, is shown 'as a full line, and the dimensions are given
from this line.

Framing of Front Elevation. The framing of the front elevation
of the house above the foundation is shown in Fig. 39. The sill is
6 by 8, resting on its 8-inch face. The corner posts are 4 by 6, framed
into the sill; and a 4 by 6 flush girt is shown running around the house.
It will be noticed that the girt stops on the side elevations where it is
marked "4 by 6 sunk girt" (Fig. 40). The plate is formed of 2*by 4
joists, which break joints fill around the building. The frame is
braced by 3 by 4 studs, these bracas being as long as possible, which
is considered better construction than the former short-brace system.
In cheaper work, 2 by 4 braces, halved into the studding, are sometimes
used in the same position. Tlic fiUing-in studs are 2 by 4, set 16
inches on centers. The door and window studs are 3 by 4 inches, set
5 indies clear of the sash opening.

The dimensions are given to tlie centers of the openings. The
heights" are generally given to the finished floor, which would be 2
inches above the joist line. The large openings are trussed, as shown
over the front door opening. The rafters are 2 by 7, set 20 inches on
centers, the hips being 2 by 10, and the valley rafters 3 by 4. The
dormers are built up of 4 by 4 corner posts and 4 by 7 rafters each side
of the opening. "^The ridge is 2 by 8, the distance to the top of ridge
being given above the top of the plate, and all the points on the ridge
rafters and ridge may be located on the sill Une to the junction of the
hip.

Framing of Side Elevation, llie sill, girts, corner posts, stud-
ding, plate, and rafters (Fig. 40), are similar to those already described
on the front elevation. The framing of tlie front and rear porches is
also shown, with the dimensions given similarly. The attic floor joists

Fig. 41.

-DETA1U' OF KITCHEN -PANTRY- ETC-

, —

P=T

f""

—

=-^

1 I

f= □

oVufJf

^CCTION- THRCy- KITCHEN PANTRY

•SCALt-
12 6 O 1

U-LU 1 I I

SECTION- THRO' CHJNA CL05ET-

3 TUT.

-BMP-niTRtP-AROWU?-
POORS ^SPRAWtR^-

-DrrAiL- or pantries

5CAI_E,
i 9 6 3 O

• DLTAJL- oniNlNCLO^LT-

lK>OT.

Fig:. 42

•PLUnblNG-^PLAAJ-c^^ -vJECTlQN

^ECJjOEnCL' AT - EJn&LDALt, -/"O -

Ul-^L. :^

Cl!

I ,1

-crs-

cr:3 t;

.1 i

1? ^

r.no: j:..rii r:.L.\\H-Ki y\j^\

■«ri- c^jyia •ir- wrr*

Fig. 43.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 87

are supported on a 1 by 6 hard pine ledger-board, which is cut into
the studding after the manner of balloon framing.

Main Cornice and Donmen Fig. 41 is reduced from a drawing
made at a scale of three-fourths inch to the foot. This plate should be
drawn out at the original scale mentioned; and a full-size pencil
study should he made for comparison.

Kitchen, Pantry, and China Closet. Fig. 42 shows the details
of kitchen, pantr}', and china closet reduced from a drawing made at
a scale of one-half inch to the foot, and larger details at a scale of one
and one-half inches to the foot, showing shelving, lockers, and doors.
These are all included in the interior finish, and should follow the
specifications as to sizes. The mouldings should all be full-size.

Plumbing. Fig. 43 shows the plumbing details for this building,
These details are carried somewhat further than is usually done on
plans, but no further than ad\isable, as they will be found of great
assistance in carrying out and superintenrling the work. The base-
ment plan shows the direction of the sewer connection, which is a hori-
zontal pipe, six inches in diameter, of cast iron, located either on the
basement ceiling or in a trench on the cellar floor. In this case it must
be below the cellar-floor
level in order to take the
laundry tubs. The sec-
tion shows the elevations
of the pipe carried up
through the house. ^^' ^*'

There will be a trap between the point shown and the sewer, just out-
side the wall of the house. The leader connections are 4-inch cast-iron
pipe inside the house in cellar floor, and 4-incli terra-cotta outside the
house, to take the water from the gutters and conductors. On the
first connection there is a cleanout, and the size of the pipe is reduced
from 6 inches to 4 inches. There should be cleanouts at every bend,
and also at about every fifteen feet of horizontal run. There should
be a bell trap (Fig. 44) to take the cellar surface water, also branches
for general fixtures through the house, as shown. The vertical pipe
of 4-inch cast iron would rest on a brick pier at the bottom built by the
mason.

The vent pipes from the trap of every fixture are shown in dotted
lines, and are carried up beyond the highest fixture, where they may be

DE.TAIL OT'CmZZfiiy'VAmji^-rtfiMU-

timinii

M i ii i i|im' i i[iii | mmi| iii m'l' R

JUui ^ii4

'C7

-K

'Window trasoc Head

boaxdtng

•JECnON'THSD-
•WINDOW-HEAD-

Fig. 15.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 80

carried back into the soil pipe or through the roof. Branches are
taken off for the laundry tubs, china closet, sink, lavatory, tub, and
closet, as shown in the section and on the first and second-floor plumb-
ing plans. Sometimes these pipes are shown in blue on the regular
working drawings; but there is an advantage in having them on a sep-
arate sheet, as has been done in this detail. The vent pipes from the
traps may be of 2-inch cast iron or of 2-inch galvanized wrought iron.
This practice varies with the building laws in different localities.

Detail of General Window Frames. Fig. 45 shows the method of
laying out a full-size detail of a window box. Such a drawing is one
of the first things usually given to a draftsman on entering an archi-
tect's office, and one of the most important details of house building
to becdme aajuainted with. The drawing shows an elevation of the
lower left-hand corner and upper left-hand corner of the window-
frames seen from tlie outside. Tlie lower part of the drawing shows
a section through the window sill. Taking the scale of fi inches shown
at the top of the drawing, it would be found "that the window sill can
be made from 2-inch stock finished alx)ut one and three-quarters
inches thick. On the outside, next to the clapboards, is a bed-mould-
ing, and the slope of the sill forms a good drip to throw off water. The
clapboards are housed .into the under side of the sill. The sill rests on
a 3 by 4 or 4 by 4 horizontal stud under the window opening. The
inner side of the sill is cut to a)me on a line with the finished plaster.
The plaster stop or gi-ound, which is either three-cjuarters or seven-
eighths inch thick, according to the proposed thickness of the pluster,
is nailed on to the 3 by 4 stud. The space between the stud and the
sill is frequently filled with mortar. At the left of the drawing is shown
a section through the side of the window box.

The outside architrave is arranged on the outside of the l)oarding;
and a back band, or moulded strip, forms a finish around the outside
edge. The layers of paper are generally run on the boarding under
this outside architrave; and s6metiines zinc flashing is used in very
exposal positions, being turned up against the outside architrave.
The small three-quai-ter round bead shown in the drawing may- be
omitted. Tlie 3 by 4 stud is set so as to leave sj)iice for the weights.
It is a good rule to remember that the distance from the stud to the
glass opening is 5 inches, and the distance from the sill stud the same.
The distance from stud at window heiid to glass opening is 4 inches.

90 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

The pulley stile is of hard pine; an^ the parting strip, or stop-lxad
between the two sashes, is also hard pine. Between the outside archi-
trave and the sash is put in a small screen strip, to give space enough
for a mosquito screen between blinds and sash. On the inside of the
sash is a stop-bead, which forms a part of the interior finish and covers
the rough part of the window frame.

The upper part of the drawing shows a section through the win-
dow heiid. Sometimes the window frame head is made of thinner
:;tock than that sho^Ti. This a)mpletes the rough window box as it is
shipped from tlie sash factory to the building. At the building, it is
nailed in place against the rough boarding; and later tlie sjish, which
come a little too large for their position, are fitted into place. Sections
horizontally and vertically are shown through the sash, including meet-
ing rail andmuntins. The sash at the sill is wider than elsewhere, and
underneath is usually beveled where it comes against the finished van-
dow stool, so that it will shut tight. There is also usually a groove
underneath, to intercept any water that may blow in. The meeting-
rail may be made on the outside sash, to drop below the meeting-rail
on the inside sash, forming a drip which will prevent the water washing
down on the glass of the lower sash.

The inside finish is frequently included on the general interior-
finish drawings of the building, and is not always sent out with the
window-frame details. The window stool is shown on the dra^^ing,
with a small space underneath where it comes against the sash, which
forms a slight interruption for any water that may pass the other
groove. Tlie apron is nailed onto the sill and plaster stop; and a
moulding is frenerally run under the window stool where it joins the
apron. A l)ack band may be laid around the inside architrave, against
the pUustering; or the inside architrave may be all one piece.

Fig. 46shows several variations from tlie details of window frames
illustrated in Fig. 45; and these can be still further varied if de-
sired; or a combination of the parts may be made, taking certain de-
tails from each detail given.

The frames, unless otherwise shown, are usually made of white
pine. I'uUey stiles and parting beads are made of hard pine.

The pulley stiles are seven-eighths inch thick, tongued into the
outside casings, as shown in the section through the side of the window
box. The parting or stop beads are seveti-eighths by one-half inch in

^ALERNATE ^ DETALOF- WINDOW' FRAMEa3

Fig. 46.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

?UAcj

Ground- CftJin^

JYud

VcigKt

&0*

jA»/h

Outride Co^inj.

] PflLrling Qea-d

t/ait/h

LftvlW^lB^

size; sometimes they are made seven-eighths by three-eightlis inch,
the latter giving more room for the screen strip.

When two-coat work is specified for plaster, the plaster stops are
generally three-quarters inch thick; when three-coat work is used,
generally seven-eighths inch thick. Very often the window box is
completed- by ground-casing either three-quarters or seven-eighths
inch thick, as shown in Fig. 47; in this case no ground or plaster stops
are necessary around the window frames. The yoke or \vindow-frame

head is generally made
one and three-eighths or
one and one-half inches
thick. The sills are set
to pitch one and one^half
inches. Care must be
taken to see that the
blinds are made suffi-
ciently long to fit, as
stock frames are fre-
quently made with a
slope of not over one-
half inch in four inches.
The outside casing — or
^^' • outside architrave, as it

is sometimes called — may be set either flush with the boarding or out-
side tlie boarding. Wlien it is set flush with the boarding, tlie shingles
may be carried directly across the joint, and finished against a back
band, whfch comes around the outside of the window frame. The
outside casing is generally seven-eighths inch tliick, and five inches or
sometimes four and one-half inches in width. In certain cases it is
made of one and one-eighth inch stock, when it is to be set outside the
boarding. Sometimes, instead of the back-band shown, an architrave
made from one and one-eighth to one and three-quarter inch stock is
planted on the outside casing. This would show the distinction be-
tween the outside casing and the outside architrave. The method of
using a ground casing and outside casing flush with the boarding is
. inexpensive, and therefore in (piite common use. It does not give suffi-
cient room for a screen strip, and does not make a very tight casing
where tlie pulley stile connects witli the sill.

Oul^de .

DLTMU"' 0F'P0IOi<DRNICE€1C-

PuYori — ^-^

•DETAtLT

THRO*
•WATER
•TABU

■MAMp^Wk-i^

lIJ}JfIJJJ}fJJJJj)jIIf}9J77r

\99nui\

Fig. 48,

^DETAIk/'OF^ TRM-QN-FIRIT- FLOOR,-

•REJ'lDEJvlCE-AT-jyDGEriALE.-AO

DODR

DETAIL- or TRIM-

WINDOW -DGDR-

? € 9 \

DETAIL or lODKCAaSK
SHOWIMG

^ij^nort orstAi

e==

vSbAteofv 9 . ? . ? 1 I pe2t-^ Jnchigr-

P^. 49.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWEsG

The sasb are usually made one and three-quarters inches thick,
for house construction; sometimes, in less expensive work, they are
made one and one-half inches tliick, and, for cheap cellar windows,
one and one-quarter inches thick. For plate glass they should not be
less than one and three-quarter inches thick; and for important work,
they are usually two and one-quarter inches thick. Frames may be
veneered on the inside, to match tlie other interior finish.

Porch and Front Entrance. For detail of these, see Fig. 48.

Trim on First Floor. For detail, see Fig. 49.

Uniform Titles for Drawings. Fig. 50 shows a scheme for a uni-
form title to be use on working drawings. This may be made as a rub-
ber stamp, the name of the drawing being lettered id, the name of the

•APFROVED-

•BASEMENT -PLAN-

• ^CALE' ii-lNCH- -l-FOOT'

•RESIDENCE- FOR-

•GEORGE- A<JOJSE5-f:»-
•BOSTON-MASS-

•n^AhKABOlMJE-ARCHlTCCT

■BDILPWG'NO-

Fig. 50.

building being set up in rubber type, and the remainder being perma^
nent. This stamp should be put on the drawing whenever it is started,
a rubber dating stamp being used to give the date of beginning; the
building number and sheet number should be recorded in the drawing
lx)ok. The architect or draftsman who lays out the drawing puts his
initials under the word "Drawn;*' the draftsman who finishes it pilts
his initials undei-the word "Traced;" another puts his initials under the
word "Checked," with the date; and finally the ardiitect adds his ini-
tials and date after the drawings are ready to go out of the office. On
the lower right-hand corner is a space where date of any revision may
be entered. This stamp may l)e made four and seven-eighths inches
long, so that it can be used on a 3 by 5 index card, for the drawing
record; and also on a postal card, for a receipt to be signed by the con-

^ JTAIRCA JL ^ FIREPL^L < KITAILJ -

• I ' '
il 1 !

FIG.A

KITCHEN

riG.B

rCONTMALL

.^^

riG.c

CLOSET

Hf^DOOt I. ■ ,

I I Ml

I I I OVEK * I I

w^y ft

FIG.D

vesti-
bule:

JX-

1 1

in t=

FIG.F

FIG.E
IL

: I

■ . i I

. ... ■ ■. . . p '

NING

EQOM

Q^^^S

• LIVING

5CL550I23 STAIRCASE

riG.G

KOOM

FIG.H

Fig. 51.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 97

tractor on rec*eiving the drawinj^, or for any other ninnoranda in re-
•^ard to drawings.

Staircase and Fireplace Details. One of the best ways to prepare
for the designing of buildings is to study and make memoranda of
interesting plans and details. This is especially true in relation to
house building, as well as to the planning of large buildings. Some
of the most interesting sketch books are those filled with small-plan
details which can be referred to and used in the same manner as win-
dow or door details could be used in designing elevations. Fig. 51
shows several such small drawings on one sheet.

Fig. A shows the usual way of working out a back staircase entirely
enclosed between pai'titions, one staircase going down under the other.
This is very compact, and may be worked out in wood or iron and be-
tween plaster or brick walls. The space may be larger or smaller
than that shown. The width of stairs from the finished wall to center
of rail should never be less than 2 feet 2 inches for the smallest stair-
case, and usually 2 feet 8 inches is employed for a back staircase.
Sometimes the newel posts are brought together as one, making what
is practically a circular staircase.

Fig. B shows a combination staircase; that is to say, the front
staircase goes up to a landing, and then continues in any direction t3
the second floor. From this landing a door opens, leading down to
the service part of the house, giving many of the advantages of a back
staircase, with loss of only a small amount of space.

Fig. C gives an interesting combination of staircase and fireplace.
The fireplace is one step below the general floor level; and the ceiling
is kept lower than the general ceiling of the room, with a small stair-
case leading up to a mezzanine story, above the fireplace, which may
be arranged to look down on the main floor of the room or may form a
sort of gallery.

Fig. D shows a staircase going up to a landing which is carried
out into a room as a balcony indicated by dotted lines. At this
l**^'el a little bay window is carried out over an outside doorway below.
As there are only eleven risers shown, it would be necessary in this case
to have the landing made of pla nk laid flat, to get head room for the
seat.

Fig. E shows a compact arrangement of hall, coat closet, and out-

*''^^" CENTRAL PAVIUON - EA3TLRN - PAiaKWAY- ELEVATION- ^s^'^'^

J^RflDKLYN-iN3TlTUTL- K«KiK-iffAD-*»-w«Tt -AKCKn-

Fig. 54

' 1 r >JF CrV' T7 K ir* ;= f ^MF^ Tf.Tr'-lL- FFv^Jf^f nP.ATnU ■

•THE'KNICKLRBOCXRR TRV5TCCMPANY-

Fig. 55

^*"'}?iblSi.?tS^'!2«'*5r8SS THRLL-OUARTtR- OCALt -DETAIL - Of - CUT ' 3T0NE. -WORK-
*'"^™ ' CENTRAL PAVILION - LOTERN - PAiaKWW/' CLCmTlON •

J^RiQDKLYN ' JN^TITUTTL' K«KiK-wtAD'*»«»-WHiTt ♦akckts*

Fig. 54

^rr

il ^

'i-T in

\ ( li

r*.

^^^""T^

^^^'

j"l.

'W^

•THE'KNIOCEKBOCXER TRV5TCCVv\PANY-

Fig. 55

102 • ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

side vestibule, with an interesting axrangement of the ingle-nook and
fireplace, and seats each side.

Fig. F shows another arrangement of circular staircase differing
from that shown in Fig. A, as it contains space for a service elevator
or lift.

Fig. G shows a scissors staircase, which is sometimes used in
double houses occupied by different families on each floor. This con-
struction makes a saving of space, as the staircases may be placed un-
der each other, while each family is able to go from floor to floor by its
own private staircase. This arrangement is also sometimes used in
schoolhouses, where there is height enough to have mezzanine toilet
rooms at the landings, w^ith separate stairways for boys and girls in the
same given space on plan.

Fig. H shows an arrangement for the fireplace between dining
room and living room where space is desired for closets or serving room
between. On one side is built the ordinary fireplace with seats on
each side, the tiling being carried out to the end of the seats; on the
other side the hearth is carried out with brick floor, and the hood is
carried out over this so that a basket of coals can be set directly on the
brick floor. Sometimes th6 fire-basket is placed below the floor level,
so that the surface comes al)out on a level with the floor.

Figs. 52 to of) show working drawings of prominent architectural
firms. It sliould be noted how carefully and clearly everything is
drawn — from tlie lettering to the sculptured parts.

The preliminaries to starting a drawing, are:

Stretcli half a sheet of Wliatman's Imperial cold-pressed paper,
22 by 15 inches in size. WTiile this is drying, sketch out rapidly with
pencil, T-scjuare, and triangles, on a piece of manila detail paper, the
main lines of the proposed drawing. This will show the proper pla-
cing of the drawing, and save much erasing on the final sheet.

Sometimes tracing paper may be mounted over the \Miatman*s
paper, and a place cut for making tlie final drawing; or the study may
be made directly on tlie tracing paper over the final sheet, and then
cut out and re<lrawn or transferre<l.

The paper retiuired for the first drawing is, therefore:

One she(»t Whatman's ''Imperial" drawing paj^r.

One yard manila detail paper.

Several yards of Rowney's P^nglish tracing paj)er.

A CKNOWLEDGMENT SHOULD BE MADE TO
'^^ THE SEVERAL ARCHITECTS, DESIGNERS
AND PUBLISHERS WHO HAVE ALLOWED
THEIR DRAWINGS TO BE REPRODUCED IX
THE SECTION ON ARCHITECTURAL LETTER-
ING, AND TO THE BATES & GUILD CO, OF
BOSTON, FOR PERMISSION TO INCLUDE THE
VARIOUS PLATES FROM - LETTERS AND LET-
TERING," A LARGER TREATISE BY FRANK
CHOUTEAU BROWN.

tiere

. iliesT-nteri' ci'
uie fxemain^ of

M^'^ZLIZABETHlbSX:

L Conf oiA u
ei^'vho died J/cF ^

Years .

RU^BIHG OF rNClSKD SLATS LBTTERIHG FROM HEAD STONE IN KING'S CHAPEL BURYtl

CROU^^D, BOSTON. 1773-

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING.

Architectural lettering maj be divided into two general
classes. The first is for titling and naming drawings, as well as
for such notCw and explanations as it is usual or iiocessary to i)ut
upon them; this may well be called '^Office Lettering." The
second includes the use of letters for architectural inscriptions
to be carved in wood or stone, or cast in metal: for this quite a
diflFerent character of letter is required, and one that is always
to be considered in its relation to the material in which it is to
be executed, and designed in regard to its adaptability to its
method of execution. This may be arbitrarily termed "Inscrip-
tion Lettering," and as a more subtle and less exact subject than
office lettering it may better be taken up last.

OPFICB LBTTBRINQ.

Architectural office lettering has nothing in common with
the usual Engineering letter, or rather, to be more exact, the re-
verse is true : Engineering lettering has nothing in common with
anything else. Its terminology is wrong and needlessly confusing
inasmuch as it clashes with well and widely accepted definitions.
Therefore it will be necessary to start entirely anew, and if the
student has already studied any engineering book on the subject,
to warn him that in this instruction paper such terms as Gothic,
etc., will be used in their well-understood Architectural meaning
and must not be misinterpreted to include the style of letter
arbitrarily so called by Engineers.

The first purpose of the lettering on an architectural plan or
elevation is to identify the sheet with its name and general
descriptive title, and further, to give the names of the owner
and architect. The lettering for this purpose should always be
rather important and large in size, and its location, weight and

ARCHITECTUEAL LETTEKING

height must be exactly determined by the size, shape and weight
of the plan or elevation itself, as well as its location upon and
relation to the paper on which it is drawn, in order to give a
pleasing eifect and to best finish or set off the drawing itself.
The style of letter used may be suggested, or even demanded, by
the design of the building represented. Thus Gothic lettering
might be appropriate on a drawing of a Gothic church, just as
Italian Renaissance lettering would be for a building of that
style, or as Classic lettering would seem most suitable on the
drawings for a purely Classic design ; while each letter or legend
would look equally out of place on any one of the other drawings.

LETTER FORnS.

It may be said that practically all the lettering now used
in architectural offices in this country is derived, however re-
motely it may seem in some cases, from the old Roman capitals
as developed and defined during the period of the .Italian Renais-
sance. These Renaissance forms may be best studied first at a
large size in order to appreciate properly the beauty and the
subtlety of their individual proportions. For this purpose it is
well to draw out at rather a large scale, about four or four and
one-half inches in height, a set of these letters of some recognized
standard form, and in order to insure an approximately correct
result some such method of construction as that shown in Figs.
1 and 2 should be followed. This alphabet, a product of the
Renaissance, though of German origin, is one adapted from the
well-known letters devised by Albrecht Diirer about 1525, and is
liore merely redrawn to a simpler constructive method and ar-
ranged in a more condensed fashion. This may be accepted as a
good general form of Roman capital letter in outline, although
it lacks a little of the Italian delicacy of feeling and thus be-
trays its German origin.

The letter is here shown in a complete alphabet, including
those lett(»r.s usually ouiitfod from tlio Classic or Italian inscrip-
tions: tlic J, V (tlie V in its uMxlcru form) and two alternative
W's, which are separately drawn out in Fig. 1.

Th('S(» thrc^e do not properly form part of the Classic alpha-
bet and have come into use only within comparatively modern

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

times. For this reason in any strictly Classic inscription the
letter I should be used in place of the J, and the V in place
of the U. It is sometimes necessary to use the W in our modern
spelling, when the one composed of the double V should always
be employed.

The system of construction shown in this alphabet is not
exactly the one that Diirer himself devised. The main forms
cf the letters as well as their proportions are very closely copied
from the original alphabet, but the construction has been some-
what simplified and some few minor changes made in the letters
themselves, tending more towards a modern and more uniform
character. The two Ws, one showing the construction with the
use of the two overlapping letter V's, and one showing the W
incorporated upon the same square unit which carries the other

Fig. 1/ I'wo Alternative Forms of the Letter W,
to accompany the Alphabet shown in Fig. 2.

letters (the latter form being the one used by Durer himself),
are shown separately in Fig. 1. It should be noticed that every
letter in the alphabet, except one or two that of ncK'essity lack
the requisite width — such as the I and J — is based upon and
fills up the outline of a square, or in the case of the round letters,
a circle which is itself contained within the square. This alpha-
l)et should be compared with the alphabet in Fig. 4, attributed
to Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect of the sixteenth century.
By means of this comparison a very good idea may be obtained
of the diflferences and eharaeterislics which distinguish \ho Italian
and German traits in practically contemporaneous letterincf.

After oncp drawing out these* letters at a larije siz<% the be-
ginner may find that be has unconsciously accpiired a better con-
structive feeling for the geuoral proportions of the* huliv'uhial let-

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

ters and should thereafter form thie letters free-hand without the
aid of any such scheme of construction, merely referring occa-
sionally to the large chart as a sort of guide or check ujx)!! the

.1 ^^ L 1 1

\ . ^3 .i ■

S
1

■7 S

^B^^ ■■■■

—

H^'' ""^

I 5. a ^ S C 7

Fig. 2. Alphabet of Classic Renaissance Letters according to Albrecht
Diirer, adapted and reconstructed by F. C. Brown. (See Fig. 1.)

eye. For this purpose it should bo placed conveniently, so that it
may he referred to when in douht as to the outline of any in-
dividual letter. By following this course and practicing thor-

ARCHITECT UKAL LETTERING

ouglily the use of the letters in word combinations, a ready com-
mand over this important style of letter will eventually be
acquired.

"^m

■

^^^

U i

B^^

}

^,''-|

^ 1

^\m

^,M

■

"■^

1 — '

^^^^T/' J ^

^B ^1^ jf

lii

7
Fig. 2. (Continued)

^^^^^^B

^—

\\ ^

"x^

■-^

■>

•■

''^

'-,.

■

■■

■r

In practice it will soon be discovered that a letter in outline
and of a small size is more difficult to draw than one solidly
blacked-in, because the defining outline must be even upon both

8 ARCHITECTUEAL LETTERING

its edges ( and that as the eye follows more the inner side of this
line than it does the outer, hoth in drawing and afterwards in
recognizing the letter form, the inaccuracies of the outer side of
the line are likely to show up against the neighboring letters, and
produce an irregularity of effect that it is difhcult to overcome,
especially for the beginner; while in a solidly blacked-in letter,
it is the outline and proportions alone with which the draftsman
must concern himself. Therefore, a letter in the same style is
more easily and rapidly drawn when solidly blacked-in than as
an "open" or outline letter. In many cases where it is desired
to give a more or less formal and still sketchy effect, a letter of
the same construction but with certain differences in its charac-
teristics may be used. It should not be so difficult to draw, and
much of the same character may still be retained in a form that

TAVNTON • PVB LIC •
TAVNTON • M Ai3AC

/*Mxr rwiDOLFH K)AJ /*amct one w»w> m*> my jk

LIBRA RY
H V J E T T 3

flFTM ACNU& NEWYORK OTY

Fig. 3. Title from Competitive Drawings for the Taunton Public Library,
Albert Randolph Ross, Architect.

is much easier to execute. Some such letter as is shown at the
top of Fig. 10, or any other personal variation of a similar form
' such as may be better adapted to the pen of the individual drafts-
man ^vould answer this purpose. The titles shown in Figs. 3 and
5 include letters of this same general type, but of essentially
different character.

In drawing a letter that is to be incised in stone it is cus-
tomary to show in addition to the outline, a third line about in
the center of the space between the outside lines. This addi-
tional line represents the internal angle that occurs at the meeting
of the two sloping faces used to define the letter. An example is
shown in Figs. 24 and 25, w^hile in Fig. 7, taken from drawings
for a building by MeKim, "Mead & Wliite, the same convention
is frankly employed lo emphasize the principal lettering of a
pen-drawn title.

AK('niTP]CTURAL LETTERING

ABCD

EFGH

I KLM

NOQP

RSTV
WX

Fig. 4. Italian Renaissance Alphabet, according: to Sebastian Serlio.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

For the purpose of devising a letter that may be drawn with
one stroke of the pen and at the same time retain the general
character of the larger, more Classic alphabet, in order that it
may be consistently used for less important lettering on the same
drawing, it is interest.Mig to try the experiment of making a
skeleton of the letters in Figs. 1 and 2. This consists in rnnning
a single heavy line around in the middle of the strokes that form

JERSEY' aiY • FREE - PVBLIC - UBRARY

BRrrE-/MO-B/HX)N • ARCHITECrS- ni-RFm-/VB^VE-N£W-VDR.K.*CnY»

Fig. 6. Title from Drawings for the Jersey City Public Library,
brite & Bacon, Architects.

the outline of these letters. This "skeleton" letter, with a few
modifications, w^ill be found to make the best possible capital
letter for rapid use on working drawings, etc., and in a larger
size it may be used to advantage for titling details (Fig. 9). It
will also prove to be singularly effective for principal lettering

Fig. 6. "Skeleton" Construction of Letters shown in Fig. 2.

on plans, to give names of rooms, etc. (Fig. 13), while in a still
smaller size it may sometimes be used for notes, although a
minuscule or lower case letter will be found more generally useful
for this purpose.

In Fig. 6 are shown four letters where the skeleton has been
drauTi within the outline of the more Classic form. It ifr un-

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

bo'

necessary to continue this experi-
ment at a givater length, as it is
believed the idea is sufficiently de-
veloped in these four letters. In
addition it is merely the theoreti-
cal part of the experiment that it
is desirable to impress upon the
draftsman. In practice it will be
found advisable to make certain
further variations from this "skel-
eton" in order to obtain the most
pleasing effect possible with a
single-line letter. But the basic
relationship of these two forms
will amply indicate the propriety
of using them in combination or
upon the same drawing.

It will be found that the letter
more fully shouTi in Fig. 10 is
almost the same as the letter pro-
duced by this "skeleton" method,
except that it is more condensed.
That is, the letters are narrower
for their height and a little freer
or easier in treatment. This
means that they can be lettercMl
more rapidly and occupy less
space, and also that they will pro-
duce a more felicitous effect.

In.actual practice, the free cap-
itals shown in Fig. 10 will be
found to be of the shape that can
be made most rapidly and easily,
and this style or some similar let-
ter should 1)0 studied and practiced
very carefully.

Other examples of similar
one-line capitals will be found

12 AKCHITECTTTRAL LETTERING

used with classic outline or blacked-iu capitals on drawings.
Figs. ;5, 5 and 7.

Jn Figs. S, 1) and \»i these one-line letters are used for
principal tithes as well, and with good effect.

In Fig. 10 is shown a complete alphabet of this single-line

blLL OF INDIANA LIME57DNE
QENESEE VALLEY TRJiST CO'5 bVILDIN^ci

Fig. 8. Title from Architectural Drawing, Claude Fayette Bragdon, Architect

letter, and the adaptability of this character for use on details is
indicated by the title taken from one and reproduced in Fig. 0.
In the same plate, Fig. 10, is also shown an excellent form of
small letter that may be used with any of these capitals. It is

Detail N^CSg) of

Fmjtone Jnin C

405 • COMMONWLALTH AVL

Frank. • Chooteau • Brown -Architect-
M J? .3 • Park* • Jtreet- hoj"toi\ Ma^J •

Fig. 9. Title from Detail.

quite as plain as any Engineer's letter, and is easier to make,
«nnd at the same time M'hen correctly placed upon the drawing
it is much more decorative. This entire plate is reproduced at
a slight reduction from the size at which it was drawn, so that
it may be studied and followed closely.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 13

LETTERS * FOR^

^ PRINCIPAL'

TITLE5'

• 3CALE THREE- Qy^KERS •
OFAN•INCH:EQ^5^LS•O^E,•
• FOOT

• Small Letteivy- aobcd-

• efohijklmnopcpvstuv •

• vn^z ■ for n^id v/ork.

CAPITALS ABCDEG
FHIJKLMNOPQRJT
UVXNaT/ZFEEEHAND

Fig. 10. l.etters for Architectural Office use.

14 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERINO

Fij^. 10 sliuiild bc' most carefullv studied and copied, as it
represents sm-li actual letter sliapc»s as are used continually on

AITALPHABbT
BrAJ^HlTECTS

rshcowxyz I2j4^6y
Plan. ofSecondBoor

NOPQRSTUVWYl

A ^ooH alphabel: £r
lettering plans ^tc

Fig. 11. Single-line Jtalic Letters, by Claude Fayette Bragdon.

architectural drawings, and such as would, therefore, be of the
most use to the draftsman. lie should so perfect himself in these
alphabet? that he will have them always at hand for instant use.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

The alphabets of capital and minuscule one-line letters
^liovvn in Fig. 11 are similar in general type to those we have just
been discussing, except that they are sloped or inclined letters
and therefore come under the heading of "Italics." '^'^tJ Italic
letter is ordinarily used to emphasize a word or phrase in a
sentence where the major portion of the letters are upright;

CAPITAL FE^OM
THE/TOWEJtOF

thewikd;.

^ojettE from
temple/op mars.

KOMB

CX3EINTHIANCAP
FROM HADRJAN
BUILDINGS.

ATH£,N5.

CAULlCUiUjk
OfOORiNTHIAM
CAP

BALWTER) 3Y XAN C3ALLO

Fig. 12. Drawing, by Claude Fayette Bragdon.

but where the entire legend is lettered in Italics this effect of
emphasis is not noticeable, and a ])leasiii<2; and somewhat more
unusual drawing is likely to result. If it is deemed advisable to
emphasize any portion of th(» lettering on such a drawing, it is
necessary only to revert to the upright form of letter for that
portion.

The single-line capitals and small letters on the usual archi-
tectural j)lan or working drawing are illustrated in Fig. 1*5, where
such a plan is reproduced. This drawing was not one made spe-

IG AKCHlTECTUfiAL LETTEKING

cially to show this point, but was selected from among several
as best illustrating the use of the letter forms themselves, as well
as good placing and composition of the titles, both in regard to
tlie general outline of the plan and their spacing and location in
tlie various rooms. It is apparent that it is not exactly accurate
in the centering in one or two places. For instance, in the general
title, the two lower lines are run too far to the right of the
center line, and this should be corrected in any practice work
where these principles will be utilized. It may be well to say
that the actual length of this plan in the original drawing was
thirteen inches, and the rest of it large in proportion. The
student should not attempt to redraw any such example as thia
nt the size of the illustration. lie must always allow for the re-
duction from the original drawing, and endeavor to reconstruct
the example at the original size, so that it would have the same
r'^ffect when reduced as the model that he follows.

The letters for notes and more detailed information should
be much simpler and smaller than and yet may be made to accord
with the larger characters. Such a rapid letter as that shown in
Fig. 10, for instance, may be used effectively with a severely clas-
sical title. Of cmirse, no one with a due regard for propriety or
for economy of time would think of using the Gothic small letter
for this purpose.

The ])ortion of a drawing shown in Fig. 14 illustrates an-
other instance of the use of lettering on an architectural working
drawing. The lettering defined by double lines is in this case
a portion of the architectural design, the two letters on the pend-
ant banners being sown on to the cloth while those on the lower
portion of the drawing are square-raised from the background
and gilded. Single-line capitals are used in this example for the
notes and information necessary to understand the meaning of
the drawing.

A drawing of distinction should have a principal title of
equal beauty, such as that shown in Fig. 5 or Fig. 7. The ex-
cellent lettering reproduced in Fig. 12, from a drawing by Mr.
Claude Fnyette Bragdon, is a strongly characteristic and in-
dividual form, although based on the same "skeleton" idea as
the other types of single-line lettering already referred to.

AKCHITECTURAL LETTEKlxNG

• The **skeletoii" letter, formed on the classic Koiuan letter,
displays quite as clearly as does the constructive system of Al-
brecht Diirer, the distinctively square effect of the Roman caj)i-
tal. The entire Roman alphabet is built upon this square and
its units. The letters shown in Figs. 22 and 23 are redrawn from
rubbings of old marble inscriptions in the Roman Forum, and
may be taken as representative of the best kind of classic letter

BIGELOW
KENNARDSCO

GOLDSMITHS
SILVERSMITHS
JEWELERS ^
IMPORTERS
MAKERS OF
FINE SCOTCHES
AND CLOCKS

511 WASHINGTON ST
CORNEROFWEST SX

ill

Fig. 15. Advertising Design, by Addison B. Le Boutillier.

for incision in stone. The Diirer letter, while a product of a later
period, is fundamentally the same, and differs only in minor, if
characteristic, details. However, for purposes of comparison it
will serve to show the difference between a letter incised in mar
ble, or in any other material, and one designed for use in letter-
ing in black ink against a white background.

COMPOSITION.

After acquiring a sufficient knowledge of hotter forms, the
student is ready to begin the study of ^'lettering." While a
knowledge of architectural beauty of form is the first essential, it

20 AKCHITECTUKAL LETTERING

BIGELO^t: KENNARD AND CQ
WILL HOLD, IN THEIR ART
ROOMS. MARCH2J TO APRtt.6
INCLUSIVE. A SPECIAL EXHIBI'
TION AND SALE OF GRUEBY
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WASHINGTON STREET COR-
NER OF WEST STREET BOSTON

Fig. 16. Cover Announcement, by Addison B. Le noutillier.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 21

is not the vital part in lettering, for the Composition of these sep-
arate characters is by far the most important part of the problem.

Composition in lettering is almost too intangible to define by
any rule. All the suggestions that may be given are of necessity
laid out on merely mathematical formulae, and as such are in-
capable of equaling the result that may be obtained by spacing
and producing the effect solely from artistic experience and intui-
tion. The final result should always be judged by its effect upon
the eye, which must be trained until it is susceptible to the slight-
est deviation from the perfect whole. It is more difiicult to define
what good composition is in lettering than in painting or any
other of the more generally accepted arts, and it resolves itself
back to the same problem. The eye must be trained by constant
study of good and pleasing forms and proportions, until it aj)pre-
ciates instinctively almost intangible mistakes in spacing and ar-
rangement.

This point of "composition" is so important that a legend
of most beautiful individual letter forms, badly placed, will not
produce as pleasing an effect as an arrangement of more awkward
letters when their composition is good. This quality has been
so much disregarded in the consideration of lettering, that it is
important the student's attention should be directed to it with
additional force, in order that he may begin with the right feel-
ing for his work.

An excellent example of composition and spacing is show^n
in Fig. 1 6, from a drawing by Mr. Addison B. Le Boutillier. The
relation between the two panels of lettering and the vase form,
and the placing of the whole on the paper with regard to its
margins, etc., are exceptionally good, and the rendered shape of
the vase is just the proper weight and color in reference to the
weight and color of the lettered panels.

Tn this reproduction the border line represents the edge of
the paper upon which the design itself was printed, and not a
border line enclosing the panel. The real effect of the original
-composition can be obtained only by eliminating the paper oul-
side of this margin and by studying the placing and mass of the
design in relation to the remaining "spot" and proportions of the
paper. Perhaps the simplest and most certain way to realize the

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

STORIES

effect of the original is to cut out a rectangle the size of this panel
from a diflferently colored piece of paper, and place it over the
page as a ''mask," so that only the outline of the original design
will show through.

The other example by the same designer, shown in Fig. 15,
is equally good. The use of the letter with the architectural
ornament, and the form, proportion, spacing and composition of
the lettering are all admirable.

The title page, by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, shown in ,

Fig. 17, is a composition in-
cluding the use of many differ-
ent types of letters; yet all be-
long to the same period and
style, so that an eflFtH?r of sim-
plicity is still retained. In
composition, this page is not
unlike its possible composition
in type, but in that case no such
variety of form for the letters
would he feasible, w^hile the en-
tire design has an effect of
coherence and fusion which the
use of a pen letter alone makes
possible, and which could not
be obtained at all in t\7)Ograph-
ical examples. The treatment
of the ornament incorporated in
Claude this design should be noticed for
its weight and rendering, which

Chap-Book

Bbino a MISCELLANYow

Curious and intereiUnff lUet

Hiftoriej; &c; newfy eomr

foptd by Mant C;el»-

WLATBD'WRmKl .

and vary deljgkt'
fultorcM.

CHICAGO:

PrinAed fx Herbert S.Stane ty Compute
mnd are to be (bU by them atTw
H CtxtanSuiUi^inDtubaniSnet

I "^

Fig. 17. Title Page, by
Fayette Bragdon.

bear an exact rehition to the *'color" of the letter employed.

In Fig. 18 is a lettered panel that will w(»ll repay careful
study. The composition is admirable, the letter forms of great
distinction — especially the small letters — and yet tin's example
has not the innate refinement of the others. / The decorative
[)anel at the top is too heavy, and the orname^it employed has
no special beauty of form, fitness, or charm of rendering (com-
{)are Figs. 15 and 16). ^vhile the weight of the panel requires

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

sonic such over-heavy border treatment as has been used. Here,
again, in thi' slight Gotliic cusping at the angles a lack of restraint
or judgment on the part of the designer is indicated, this Gothic
touch being entirely. out of keeping with the lettering itself, and
only partially demanded by the decorative panel. Of course, it

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'Will open Monday
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Tkird Floor^ A.nnex

MARSHALL FIELD
Zsf COMPANY

Fig. 18. Advertising Announcement.

is easy to see that these faults are all to be attributed to an
attempt to attract and hold the eye and thus add to the value
of the design as an advertisement; but a surer taste eould have
obtained this result and yet not at the expense of the composition
as a whole. It is nevertheless an admirable ])ieee of work.

In Fig. 19 is shown an example of the use of lettering in

ARCniTECTUKAL LETTERING

coin j)osit ion, in connection with a bolder design, in this case
for a lMM)k cover, by Air. II. Van Buren Magonigle. Xotc tlie
nice sensi^ of rehition between the style of lettering employed and
the design itself, as well as the subject of the w^ork. The letter
form is a most excellent modernization of the classic Koman
letter shape (compare Figs. 22 and 23).

Fig. 19. Book Cover, by H. Van Buren Magonigle.

The student must be ever appreciative of all examples of the
^ood and bad uses of lettering that he sees, until he can distin-
guish the niceties of their composition and appreciate to the
utmost such examples as the first of these here shown. It is only
by constant analysis of varied examples that he can be able to
distinguish the points that make for good or bad lettering.

ARCHITECTUllAL LETTERING 25

SPACING.

There is a workable general rule that may be given for
obtaining an even color over a panel of black lettering; that is, ii
the individual letters are so spaced as to have an equal area of
white between them this evenness of effect may be attained. But
when put to its use, even this rule will be found to be surrounded
by pitfalls for the unwary. This rule for spacing must not be
understood to mean that it applies as well to composition. It does
not: it is, at the best, but a makeshift to prevent one from going
far wrong in the general tone of a panel of lettering, and must
therefore fully apply only to a legend employing one single type
of letter form.

One with sufficient authority and experience to give up de-
pendence upon merely arbitrary rules, and to rely upon his own
judgment and taste may, by varying sizes and styles of letters,
length of word lines, etc., obtain a finer and much more subtle effect.

To acquire this authority in modern lettering it is necessary
to observe and study the work turned out today by the best de-
signers and draftsmen, such as the drawings of Edward Penfield,
Maxfield Parrish, A. B. Jjt Boutillicr and several others. The
architectural journals, also, publish from month to month beauti-
fully composed and lettered scale drawings by such draftsmen as
Albert R. Ross, H. Van Buren Magonigle, Claude Fayette Brag-
don, Will S'. Aldrich and others, who have had precisely the same
problem to solve as is presented to the draftsman in every new
office drawing that he begins.

Of course, the freer and the further removed from a purely
(Classic capital form is the letter shape employed by the drafts-
man, the less obliged is he to follow (lassie precedent; but at the
same time he will find that his drawing at once tends more toward
the bizarre and eccentric, and the chances are that it will lose in
effectiveness, quietness, legibility and strength.

The student will soon find that he unconsciously varies and
individualizes the letters thai: he constantly employs, until they
become most natural and easy for him to form. This insures his
developing a characteristic letter of his own, even when at the
start he bases it upon the same models as have been used by many
other draftsmen.

26 AltCiilTECTL'KAL LETTERING

niNuscuLe OR shall LerreRs.

In taking np the use of the small or minuscule letter, a word
of warning may be required. While typographical work may
furnish very valuable models for composition and for the individ-
ual shapes of minuscule letters, they should never be studied for
the spacing of letters, as such spacing in type is necessarily arbi-
trary, restricted and often unfortunate. Among the lower case
types will be found our best models of individual minuscule
letter forans, and the Caslon old style is especially to be com-
mended in this respect; but in following these models the aim
must he to get at and express the essential characteristics of each
letter form, to reduce it to a '^skeleton" after much the same
fashion as has already been done with the capital letter, rather
than to strive to copy the inherent faults and characteristics of
a type-minuscule letter. The letter must become a "pen form"
before it will be appropriate or logical for pen use; in other
words, the necessary limitations of the instrument and material
must be yielded to before the letter will be amenable to use for
lettering architectural drawings.

The small letters shown in Figs. 17,-18 aiid 20 are all
adapted from the Caslon or some similar type form, and all ex-
hibit their superiority of spacing over the possible use of any
type letter. Fig. 20 is a particularly free and beautiful example
indicating the latent possibilities of the minuscule form that are
as yet almost universally disregarded. An instance of the use
of the small letter shown in a complete alphabet in Fig. 10, may
1)0 seen in Figs. 9 and 13.

Tn lettering plans for working drawings, the small letter la
used a great deal. All the minor notes, instructions for the
builders or contractors, and memoranda of a generally unimpor-
tant character, are inscribed upon the drawing in these letters.
Referring again to Fig. 10, the letters at the top of the page would
bo those used for the principal title, the name of the drawing,
the name of the building or its owner, while the outline capitals
would be used in the small size beneath the general title, to indicate
the scale and the architect, together with his address. Tn a small
building, or one for domestic use, these same letters would be
employed in naming the various rooms, etc., although in an

: »

^^ ^ fei

<
n

H
<

Q
H

H
N

as
o

H
0U

Q
H
K
H

H
H

<
X

K
O

H
H

AKCUITECTURAL LETTERING 27

elaborate ornamental or public building, letters similar to those
in the prineipal title might bo better used, while the minuscule
letter would be utilized for all minor notes, memoranda, direc-
tions, etc. By referring to Figs. 3, 5, 7, 8, 1), Hi and 14, examples
from actuar working drawings and plans are shown, which should
sufficiently indicate the application of this principle.

It must again be emphasized that practice in the use of these
forms combined together in words, as weh as in more diffi-
eultly composed titles and inscriptions where various sizes and
kinds of letters are employed, is the only method by which the
draftsman can become proficient in the art of lettering; and
even then he must intelligently study and criticise their effect

INTERJLVD1.S
be>neatlx the> lines dC SIR.
KICHARD IXJVLlACh'^
POEM callea — "To Ltioafta
on going to the^ vsrars '*
wKtcii sattK ;

Fig. 20. Pen-drawn Heading, by Harry Everett Townsend.

after they are finished, as well as study continually the many good
drawings carrying lettering repr^uced in the architectural jour-
nals. For this purpose, in order to keep abreast of the modern
advance in this requirement, he must early learn to distinguish
between the instances of good and bad composition and lettering.

ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION LBTTERINO. %

The use of a regular Classic letter for any purpose neces-
sitates the reversion to and the study of actual Classic examples
for spacing and composition. In using this letter in a pen-
drawm design, certain changes must be made in adaj)ting it from
the incised stone-cut form — which variations are, of course, prac-
tically the reverse of those required in first adapting the letter for
use in stone. The same letter for stone incision requires, in
addition, a careful consideration of the nature of the material,
and the spacing and letter section that it allows. Also the eflFect

ARCHlTECTrRAL LETTERmO

Fig. 21. Study for Lettering on Granite Frieze of Boston Public Library,
McKira, Mead & White, Architects.

AKCHITECTUKAL LETTEIUNG

of a letter in the inscription in place must be carefully studied,
its height above or below and relation to the eye of the observer.
The fact is that the letter form must in this case be determined
solely by the light and shadow cast by the sun on a clear, bright
day,- or diffused more evenly on a cloudy one. If in an interior
location its position in regard to light and view-point is even more
important, as the conditions are less variable.
CLASSIC ROMAN LETTERS.

In any letter cut in stone, or cast in metal, it is not the out-
line of the letter that is seen by the eye of the observer, but the
shadow cast by the section used to define the letter. U'his at once
changes the entire problem and makes it much more complicated.
In incising or cutting a letter into an easily carved material, such
as stone or marble, we have the examples left us by the inventors,
or at least the adapters, of the Roman ali)habet. They have gen-
erally used it with a V-sunk section, and in architectural and
monumental work this is still the safest method and the one most
generally followed. One improvement has been made in adapt-
ing it to our modern conditions. The old examples were most
often carved in a very fine marble which allow-ed a deep sinkage
at a very sharp angle, thus obtaining a well-defined edge and a deep
shadow. In most modern work the letters are cut in sandstone
or even in such coarse material as granite, where sharp angles and
deep sinkage of the letter-section is either impossible, or for com-
mercial reasons influencing both contractors and stonecutters, very
hard to obtain. To counterbalance this fault a direct sinkage
at right angles to the surface of the stone before beginning the
V section has been tried, and is found to answer the purpose
very well, as it at once defines the edge, of the letter with a sharp
shadow. See the two large sections shown in the upper part of
Fig: 31.

This section requires a letter of pretty good size and w^idth
of section, and, therefore, may be used only on work far removed
from the eye, as is indeed alone advisable. An inscription that
is to be seen close at hand must rely upon the more correct section
and be cut as deeply as possible. For lettering placed at a great
height, an even stronger effect may be obtained by making the
incised section square, and sinking it directly into the stone.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

Such pleasant grading of shadows as may be attained by the
other method is then impossible, and there are no subtle cross

Fig. 22. Classic Roman Alphabet
From Marble Inscriptions in the Roman Forum.

liglilri on the rounding letters to add inten^st and variety, but
the letter certainly carries farther and has more strength.

AKCHITECTURAL LETTERING

In Fig. 21 is shown a photograph from a model of the
incised V-snnk letters cut in granite on the frieze of the Boston

Fig. 23. Fragments of Classic Roman Inscriptions.

Public TJhrarv. Tin's ])hotr>«i:raj)li indicates tlio sliadow ofToct that
defines the incised form of the letter, and will assist the student

32 AliClIlTECTUHAL LETTEIUNG

somewhat in determiuing the section required for the best eflFect.
It will be observed that this letter is different in character from
the one used by the same architects in a different material, sand-
stone, shown in Fig. 24.

In Fig. 22 is shown an alphabet redrawn from a rubbing of
Roman lettering, and in Fig. 23 are shown portions of Classic
inscriptions where letters of various characters are indicated.
These letters were very sharply incised with a V-sunk section in
marble, and were possibly cut by Greek workmen in Rome. It
is on some such alphabet as this that we must form any modern
letter to be used in a Classic inscription or upon a Classic build-
ing. These forms should be compared with the letters shown in
Fig. 24, on the Architectiwal Building at Harvard, by McKim,
ilead & White, architects, where they were employed with a full
understanding of the differences in use and material. The Roman
letter was cut in marble; the modern letter in sandstone. Both
were incised in the V-sunk section, but the differences in material
will at once indicate that the modem letter could not have been
cut as clearly nor as deeply as the old one. The modern letter
was done a little more than twice the original size of the old one,
which explains certain subtleties in its outline as here drawn.
The sandstone being a darker material than the marble, the letter
should of necessity be heavier and larger in the same location,
in order to "carry" or be distinguishable at the same distance;
while the Classic example, l)eing sharply and deeply cut in a
beautiful white material which even when wet retains much of its
purity of color, would be defined by a sharper and blacker outline,
and therefore be more easily legible, other conditions being the
same, even for a longer distance. In both these figures, the
composition of the letters may be seen to advantage, as in even
the Classic example, where they are alphal)etically arranged, they
are placed in the same relation to each other as they held in the
original inscription. A com]>leto alphabet of the letter shown in
word use in Fig. 24, is shown at larger size in Fig. 25.

Although the lettering of the Italian Renaissance period was
modeled closely after the Classic Roman form, it was influenced
by many different considerations, styles and peoples.

AKCHITECTUKAL LETTEKIKG

TrT

■^JA_

F'ig. 25. Coniplc'le Alphabet.
Redrawn from Inscription on Architectural Building (See Fig. 24).

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

*^.-\*

Fig. 25. (Continued)

36 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

MARMl

W^NATV

Fig. 26. Fragment of Italian Renaissance Inscription.
From the Marsuppini Tomb in Florence.

PS a

s :

< «

* c

i ^-^

►^ .

O 0)

K (0

9 9

M CO

Pi
U G

^. 2

M O

O o

O JD
H

•4

CQ
N

Ml
A.

0e
o

M
H

AfiCHITECTURAL LETTEKINO Z1

ITALIAN RE-
NAISSANCE
LETTERING

ABCDEFG

HIJKLMNE

OPQRSTU

VXWYZ

Fig. 27. Italian Renaissance Lettering.
Adapted from Inscription shown in Fig, 26.

38 ARCHITECTUKAL LETTERING

In Fig. "Ji) is shown a fragment of the inscription on the
^Afarsnppini tomb at Florence. This ontline hotter was traced
from a rubbing, and shows very nearly the exact character of tho
original, a marble incised letter. Fig. 27 is an alphabet devised

r?iQ-!pae(iiiiJ?spr?iiiip
i]i?i/i\e(i-Po)i\ppm-q?iOBi

Fig. 28. Itah'an Renaissance Inscription at Bologna.

from this incised letter for use as a pen-drawn form and redrawn
at the same size. It will be noticed that in the letters shown in
the four lower lines a qnite diiferent serif* treatment has been
adopted, and certain of the letters, such as the E's, have been

JRI(DB'9DW

OOBl-DQ Rmn

piS'DGReeiaai

PSaHOCR-XLOI

Fig. 29. Italian Renaissance Inscription, Chiaravelle Abbey in Milan.

"extended" or made wider in proportion. These variations are
?uch as modern taste would generally advocate, but in the first
three lines of this plate the feeling, serif treatment and letter
width of the original have been retained; the only change has

♦Note . The "serif is the short spur or cross stroke used to define
and end the main upright and horizontal lines of the letter.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERIXfi 3d

OOOO

lann
mooQ

Qfit0(3

a vans

Fig. 30. Alphabet of Uncial Gothic Capital Letters, 16th Century.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

been to narrow up the thin lines in relation to the thick lines
to the proportions that they should have in a solidly black and
inked-in letter form.

Tlie two small panels, one from a monument in Bologna, and
one from the Chiaravelle Abbey in Milan, Figs. 28 and 29, show
a letter which was incised in stone and follows the so-called uncial
or round form, with characteristics showing the probable influence
of the Byzantine art and period. These two inscriptions may be
compared with another alphabet showing the uncial character
when Used in black against a white page, as in Fig. 3Q. This
bame jtyle of letter was often used in metal, and may be seen in
many of the mortuary slabs of this and succeeding periods.

SIC* r^ -MODEEN*
•MASZilX- GRANITE.^ '

•METAL-
•WQDD

Fig. 31. Inscription Letter Sections.

In many of the Renaissance wall monuments the V-sunk
letter sections have been filled with a black putty to make the
letter very clear, and when this falls out, as it often does, the
V-cut section may still be seen behind it. Also in many Italian
floor slabs the letters are either V-sunk or shallow, square sinkages
filled with mastic, or sometimes they are of inlaid marble of a
color different from the ground. Again a V-sunk letter section
sometimes carries an additional effect because it is smoothly cut

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 41

ABCDEFG
HljKUvINM
NPPQQRIl

SVTWXYZ

AdDcc^Kijkl

Fig. 32. English 17th Century Letters, from Tombstones.

42 ARCUITECTUEAL LETTEIUXG

and finished and the surface of the stone is left rough, thus
obtaining a different texture and color effect; or, though more
rarely, the opposite treatment may be used. Then, again, tte
sides of the letter sinkage may be painted or gilded. Often even
the shadow is painted into the section, but this is generally done
on interior cutting where there is no direct light from the sun,
because if direct sunlight does fall upon a letter so treated, a very
amusing effect occurs when the shadow is in any other position
than that occupied by the painted representation.

For still further effects, raised lettering may be cut on stone
surfaces. This is more expensive, as it necessitates the more labor
in cutting back the entire ground of the panel, but for certain
purposes it is very appropriate.

In such a letter the section may be a raised V-shape, or it
may be rounded over to make a half circle in section, as drawn
in Fig. 31. This latter form is especially effective in marble,
but it is, of course, very delicate and does not carry to any
great distance. Its use should be restricted to small monu-
mental headstones or to lettering to be read close to, and below
the level of, the eye.

A raised letter is more generally appropriate for cast copper
and bronze tablets, when its section may be a half round, a
raised V-form, or square-raised \vith sharp corners; or, better
still, a combination of square and V-raised with a hollow face.
See Fig. 31. Experience has proved that this last-named section
produces the most telling letter for an ordinary cast-metal panel.

Fig. 32 shows an alphabet of a letter derived from English
tombstones. This letter was cut in slate or an equally friable
material, and was comparatively shallow. A certain tendency
toward easing the acute angles may be observed in this alphabet,
evidently on account of the nature of the material in which it
was carved rendering it easily chipped or broken.

In wood carving, a letter exactly reversing the V-sunk sec-
tion with direct sinkage, gives the best effect for a raised letter.

Every material, from its nature and limitations, requires
special consideration. A letter with laany angles is not adapted
to slate, as that material is liable to chip and sliver; hence an

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 43

Fig. 33. German Black Letters, from a Brass.

44 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

uncial form with rounded angles suggests itself (as in Fig. 29),
and is, indeed, frequently used.

It would be quite impossible to take up in detail the entire
list of available materials and consider their limitations at length,
as the task would be endless. For the same reason, it is not
l)ossible to take up. each letter style and consider its use in stone
and other materials. Of course, a Homan letter or any other
similar form when drawn for stone-inciseii use must have its
narrow lines at least twice as wide as when drawn in ink, black
against a white background. (Compare Figs. 26 and 27.)

Experience and intuition combined with common sense will
go farther than all the theory in the world to teach the limitations

alirtrrMijMiD:

nonnrMinjmii);

Fig. 34. Black-Letter Alphabet.

required by k^ter form and material. The student, however,
should lK*ar in mind that it is not necessary that he himself should
make a number of mistakes in order to learn what not to do. He
may get just as valual)le information at a less cost by observing
the mistakes and sucoessc^s of others in actually executed work,
and avail himself of their experience by applying it with intelli-
gence to his own problems and recpiirements.

GOTHIC LBTTERINQ.

Gothic lettering is extremely difficult, and has little practical
use for the architectural designer or draftsman. It is often
apj)ropriate, but it is quite possible to get along without employing
this form at all. However, in case he should require a letter of
this style, it would b(> better to refer him to some book where he
may study its characteristics more particularly, remembering it
is just as important he should know something of the history.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

uses and materials from which this letter has been taken, as in
any instance of the use of the Koman form. Indeed, it might be

eAmdti

Mil

Fig. 35. Italian Black Letters, after Bergomensis.

said, it IS even more important, as the Gothic letter is more uni-
versally misunderstood and misapplied than the simpler Roman
letter.

46 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

KM€m^

Fig. 36. English Gothic Text.

AECHITECTUEAL LETTEEING 47

The alphabet of German black letters shown in Fig. 35 is
taken from a very beautiful example of Gothic- black letter devised
by Jacopus Phillipus Foresti (Bergomensis) and used by him in
the title page of "De Claris Mulieribus/' etc., published in Fer-
rara in 1497. Although Italian, this letter is as German in
character as any of the examples from the pen of Albrecht Diirer.
A German black letter redrawn from a brass is shown in Fig. 33,
while an English form of Gothic letter is shown in Fig. 36.

In Fig. 34 is another example of a black-letter alphabet.
The entire effect of a black-letter page depends upon the literal
interpretation of the title "black letter." That is, the space
of white between and among the letters should be overbalanced
by the amount of black used in defining the letter form itself.

Inasmuch as this letter is likely to be used but little by
architectural draftsmen, arid as it is a mu h more difficult form
to compose than even the Eoman type, it se^ms better to refer
the student to some treatise where its characteristics are taken
up more thoroughly and ?*t greater length.

Any draftsman having occasion ti use lettering to any extent
should have some fairly elaborate textbook always at hand for
reference, and it is belie ed that '"Letters and Lettering," a larger
treatise published by the Bates and Guild Company of Boston,
from which several of the illustrations reproduced in this pam-
phlet hrve been borrowed, contains more material in an easily
available form than any other textbook on the subject.

INDEX

Part I — Architectural Drawing; Part II — Architectural Lettering

Part Page

Approximations. I, 45

Arches I, 44

Architect's scale I, 5

Architectural design, preliminary studies in I, 37

Architectural inscription lettering II, 27

Axes, importance of in architectural drawing I, 11

Black-letter alphabet H, 44

Brush, handling I, 26

Brashes and paper I, 34

Building a house, various stages in I, 55

full-size details I, 57

letting the contract I, 59

representation of materials I, 58

sketches I, 55

tracing and blue-printing I, 59

working drawings I, 56

Buildings for offices I, 60

Character of line I, 7

Classic Roman letters il, 29

Colonial house I, 61

attic and roof plan I, 71

basement plan I, 66

china closet I, S7

conditions I, 61

elevations 1, 62

fireplace details I, 97

first-floor plan I, 66

framing plans I, 77

front-elevation details I, 75

front and side elevations I, 71

kitchen I, 87

main cornice and dormer .1, 87

pantry I, 87

plans I, 62

plumbing I, 87

porch and front entrance I, 95

' second-floor plan I, 68

sketches I, 61

staircase I, 97

uniform titles for drawings .... I, 95

II INDEX

Part Page
Colonial house

useful memoranda

window frames

Colors — p^ima^>^ secondary, and complementary.

Combination of color

Complementary colors

Composition

of letters II

Criticism

Datum lines

Definitions

Design, practical problems in

Design of dwelling

Different planes, distinction between.

Drawing boards

Dwelling, design of

bathroom

butler's pantry

cellar

closets

dining room

hallway

kitchen

lavatory

living rooms

number of rooms

proportion of stair riser to tread .

refrigerator

sitting room

stairways

storeroom

Kcole des Beaux Arts

Elevation measurements

Elevations, definition of

Erasers

Exhibition drawings

German black letters II

Gothic lettering II

Graded tints

Hand level

Handling the brush . .
Inacrossiblo portions.
Inking the drawing.

Inscription lettering II

Instruments.

Italian black letters II

Italian Renaissance lettering -. . . . II

89
35
34
35

47
19
50
43

47
51
32

2
51
54
53
54
54
53
51
53
54
52
51
52
53
52
52
54
38
44
11

1
40
43
44
30
43
26
45
24
27

1
45
37
Italic letter II. 15

INDEX III

Part Page

Laying? washes I, 26

Letter forms. . . .' II, 4

Limit ing linc« I , L5

Line, character of 1, 7

Line drawing I, 7

Lines, limiting I, 15

Manipulation I, 34

Materials I, 1

for sketching 1, 41

for wash-clrawings I, 3

Measured work I, 43

Measuring tapes 1, 43

Minuscule letters II, 26

Modeling an architectural drawini: I, 18

Oblique project ions I, 16

Office lettering II, 3

Ornament I, 50

Paper. I, 3

Pencils I, 1

Plan, definition of I, 10

Practical problems in design I, 47

Preparing the tint I, 25

Primary colors I, 35

Projections I, 45

oblique ! I, 16

Putting ideas on paper I, 37

Raised lettering II, 42

Renaissance letters II, 6

Rendering, materials for I, 23

Rendering elevations I, 29

Rendering sections and plans I, 30

Rendering in wash I, 23

Rubbings I, 45

Scale I, 48

Scales • I. 4

Secondary colors I, 35

Section, definition of I, 10

Set of instruments I, 2

Shade lining' I, 8

Sliadows at 45 degrees I, 18

Skeleton letter 11, 10

Sketching I, 40

materials for I, 41

Small letters II, 26

Spacing ; • II, 25

Stretching paper I, 24

Subjects to sketch I, 42

T-squares I, 3

INDEX

Tinted papers

Tracing cloth

Tracing paper

use of

Triangles

Tube and pan colors .
Values

Wash-drawings, materials for. . .

Washes, laying

Water color hints for draftsmen .

Water color rendering

Water color sketching

Part Page

This book may b« h«pt

■

DATE DU

VJfD

•

W^iy 3 107

f fj f. r: •

rrt

HAT 1

2 1986

^ ART IffftARY

— ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H

^^H^H

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